Globalization: Definitions
Key Definitions from Scholars:
● Anthony Giddens (Director of the London School of Economics):
○ Globalization is the intensification of worldwide social relations linking distant
localities in such a way that local events are shaped by distant occurrences
and vice versa.
● Roland Robertson (Professor of Sociology, University of Pittsburgh):
○ Defines globalization as both the compression of the world and the
intensification of global consciousness.
● James Mittelman (Professor of International Relations, American University):
○ Globalization compresses time and space aspects of social relations.
● Manfred B. Steger (2003, Oxford University Press):
○ Globalization refers to a multidimensional set of social processes that create,
multiply, stretch, and intensify worldwide interdependencies and exchanges,
fostering awareness of connections between local and distant events.
○ Suggests dynamism and development along discernible patterns.
Multidimensional Nature:
● Globalization involves multiple dimensions:
○ Technological
○ Political
○ Economic
○ Environmental
○ Cultural
○ Ideological
● It’s crucial to remember each dimension’s significance without overlooking their
interconnected nature.
The Blind Men and the Elephant (Parable by Steger):
● Uses the ancient Buddhist parable of blind scholars encountering an elephant to
illustrate scholarly debates over globalization.
● Suggests that each scholar is only partly right, identifying only a single dimension of
globalization.
Unevenness and Irreversibility:
● Globalization is an uneven process affecting people differently based on location,
social structures, and culture.
● Debates exist over globalization's irreversibility:
○ Zygmunt Bauman sees globalization as irreversible—a process beyond our
control.
○ Others, like Sousa Santos and Clark, argue globalization can be influenced or
resisted politically, despite market and technological forces driving it.
Globalization: Hybridization & Dynamics
Hybridization Example (Photo: Osama bin Laden)
● Demonstrates globalization's cultural hybridization (the mixing of different cultural
styles due to global exchanges):
○ Bin Laden’s attire combines traditional Arab garments with Russian-origin
combat dress.
○ Use of the AK-47 (Russian-made) and a Timex watch (American brand)
symbolizes cultural and economic hybridization.
Essential Dynamics:
● Globalization intensifies tensions between particularism (local traditions, identities)
and universalism (global interconnectedness).
● Interdependencies connecting local and global forces have grown faster than ever
before.
Concept of Globality (by Steger)
● "Globality" signifies a social condition marked by global economic, political, cultural,
and environmental interconnections that reduce significance of traditional borders.
● Not an endpoint; it's constantly evolving into new social constellations.
Historical Context and Emergence of Globalization:
● Term "globalization" first appeared in the 1960s, becoming prominent post-1990s
with:
○ End of Cold War
○ Unification trends in Europe
○ Growth of international trade
○ Emergence of neocapitalism and the Washington consensus
○ Popularity of Western values globally
● Late 20th century saw globalization surge due to:
○ Technological innovations (transportation, internet, rapid communication)
○ The "information revolution"
Globalization as an Extension of Modernity:
● Historical timeline aligns globalization with modernity (emerging mainly from the 18th
century onwards).
● Factors contributing historically:
○ European imperialism, capitalism, revolutions (American, French), industrial
revolution.
○ Massive migrations (50 million Europeans to the USA from 1800-1914)
○ Technological advances in transportation (steam engine, railways, aviation)
and communication (telegraph, telephone).
○ 1885 Berlin Treaties laying international law foundations.
Bauman’s Concept of Two Secessions:
● First Secession (birth of modern capitalism):
○ Business separated from household life; spectacular economic growth.
● Second Secession (modern globalization):
○ Business separated from nation-state regulatory/protection systems, fueling
increased productivity.
● Bauman views globalization not as postmodern, but as an intensified form of late
modernity.
Historical Eras of Globalization (Steger):
● Prehistoric (10,000 BCE - 3,500 BCE):
○ Migration, agriculture, urbanization.
● Premodern (3,500 BCE - 1,500 CE):
○ Wheel invention, permanent roads, trade networks, writing, empires (Chinese,
Roman).
● Early Modern (1500 - 1750):
○ Printing press, maritime advancements, age of exploration, colonialism,
Enlightenment, capitalism's foundations.
● Modern (1750 onwards):
○ Industrialization, political/economic modernization, global integrations due to
technological advances.
● Steger suggests globalization’s contemporary definition starts around 1970, despite
historical roots dating back thousands of years.
Ambivalence of Globalization:
● Globalization has many positive impacts:
○ Enhanced interconnectedness, technological innovation, wealth accumulation
(though unevenly distributed), information exchange.
○ Facilitates development of international law, human rights treaties, and global
agreements.
● However, globalization remains a highly controversial, ambiguous, ever-changing,
and confusing concept:
○ Different definitions emphasize varied dimensions.
○ The phenomenon is socially constructed, influenced by ethical and political
value judgments.
PPT2:
Part 1: Globalization – Ambivalence and Consequences
Globalization: Ambivalence
● Globalization has brought about numerous positive changes, particularly:
○ Increased interconnectedness.
○ Technological innovation.
○ Wealth accumulation (albeit unevenly distributed).
○ Exchange of information.
○ Significant role in developing international law and human rights treaties.
● Despite these positive aspects, globalization remains:
○ A controversial, ambiguous, and constantly changing phenomenon.
○ Socially constructed, thus leading to different definitions emphasizing diverse
dimensions and ethical or political value judgments.
Globalization: Consequences
Weakening of the Nation-State:
● Reduced power of national governments to influence their economies, especially in
macroeconomic management.
● Rise of supranational institutions (e.g., World Bank, European Union, European
Central Bank) creating new constraints and obligations.
● Internationalization of finance, technology, manufacturing, and services limits
nation-states' autonomy.
Rise of Corporate Power:
● Multinational corporations increasingly control global trade and influence local
communities by:
○ Relocating production and services to places with cheap resources and labor,
causing environmental harm and poor labor conditions.
○ Creating unemployment in previously industrial communities.
○ Expanding into new or under-exploited markets, often manufacturing new
consumer needs.
○ Eroding public spaces by increasing privatization of leisure and public
services.
○ Influencing policy decisions at national and transnational levels (e.g.,
Monsanto in agricultural policy, Amazon in taxation, arms industry influencing
foreign policy).
○ Shaping individual identities through branding and consumer culture.
De-localization:
● Traditional local activities that required face-to-face interaction are now increasingly
conducted remotely, leading to:
○ Loss of localized cultural identity and origin.
○ Creation of new, virtual community experiences via internet-based
communication.
○ Local events and conditions becoming influenced by remote people and
systems.
○ Reduced face-to-face interactions in fields like banking and retail due to
technology.
Fragmentation:
● Globalization coexists with fragmentation (localization), a parallel trend that
promotes:
○ Disaggregation and isolation.
○ Autarchy (self-governance).
○ Ethnic or nationalist separatism.
○ Regional integration as an opposing force to globalization.
Growing Inequality:
● Increased disparity between rich and poor due to global capitalism:
○ Current income ratio between richest (e.g., Switzerland) and poorest nation
(e.g., Mozambique) is approximately 400 to 1.
○ Historically (250 years ago), the gap was around 5 to 1 and even smaller
between Europe and regions like China or India (around 1.5 to 2 to 1).
Rise of the Knowledge Economy:
● Shift from traditional factors of production (labor and capital) to knowledge:
○ Knowledge now determines standards of living more significantly than land,
tools, or labor.
○ Emergence of knowledge capitalism: generating ideas and converting them
into commercially viable products/services.
○ Raises ethical issues around the generation and exploitation of knowledge,
contributing to inequalities between and within nations.
○ Corporations aggressively claim intellectual rights, monetizing discoveries
through licensing.
Risk and Technological Innovation:
● Advances in science and technology have dramatically expanded possibilities in
production and communication.
● Technological breakthroughs (especially the internet) allow real-time global
coordination and access to global resources.
● Yet, global technological interconnectedness introduces universal risks:
○ Universalized hazards include threats to global food chains and climate
change.
Part 2: Globalization and Ethics
Ethical Evaluation of Globalization:
● Globalization is not natural but socially constructed, thus subject to ethical evaluation:
○ Raises questions about whether globalization is inherently good or bad.
○ Questions the possibility of governing, orienting, or improving globalization
ethically.
Criticism and Alternative Approaches (Carrera & Carrera):
● Many "anti-globalization" or "alter-globalization" movements do not reject
globalization entirely, but oppose its current form.
● These movements advocate for changes to make globalization more inclusive,
equitable, cooperative, and sustainable.
● Personal transformation is seen as essential (though insufficient alone) for broader
social and systemic change.
Perspective of Amartya Sen:
● The core debate is not against globalization or the market itself, but the unfair
distribution of its benefits.
● Sen emphasizes that the main ethical question is not whether the poor gain from
globalization, but if they receive a fair share and opportunity.
Shifts in Global Perspective (Carrera & Carrera):
Globalization necessitates profound shifts in perspective:
● Space: from local perspective → planetary/global perspective.
● Time: short-term → long-term vision.
● Distance: distant relationships → immediacy.
● Identity: narrow tribal identity ("Tribal Us") → plural, inclusive identity ("Plural Us").
● Environment: seeing humans and nature as separate → humans integrated within
nature.
Political Transformations:
● From competition → cooperation.
● Free market → democratic control.
● Cost-effectiveness → prioritization of public benefit in technological/scientific
progress.
● Security-oriented thinking → risk-awareness and management.
● Traditional business practices → socially responsible business practices.
Belief Transformations:
● Fragmented worldviews → unified view of life and interconnectedness.
● Anger and conflict → compromise and cooperation.
● Small, individualistic stories → broader, collective understanding ("big picture").
World Social Forum (Alternative Globalization Model):
● Established as a counterpoint to the Davos Forum (symbolizing neoliberalism).
● Advocates a different model of globalization based on:
○ Elimination of external debt.
○ Greater influence of developing countries.
○ Ending structural adjustments imposed by IMF and World Bank.
○ Application of Tobin tax on financial markets.
○ Abolition of tax havens.
○ Increased developmental cooperation.
○ Ecologically sustainable economic models.
○ Massive investment in education, healthcare, and housing.
○ Universal access to drinkable water.
○ Gender equality and women's liberation.
○ Precautionary principle regarding genetic modification technologies.
Counter-Hegemonic Globalization (Boaventura de Sousa Santos):
Washington Consensus (Neoliberalism):
● Represents global neoliberal policy standards established in Washington
(mid-1980s), often imposed on developing or post-conflict countries.
● Includes four major elements:
Liberal Economy:
● Open national economies to global markets.
● Prioritize exports and control inflation via monetary/fiscal policies.
● International protection of private property.
● Free mobility of capital and resources, excluding labor.
● Minimal state regulation and privatization of public sector enterprises.
● Social policies treated as low-priority, targeted measures instead of universal
entitlements.
Weak State:
● The state viewed as inherently oppressive, requiring size reduction to strengthen civil
society.
● Advocates for a minimal state model.
Liberal Democracy:
● Absolute priority of political and civic rights over social/economic rights.
● Free markets and elections seen as inherently beneficial, with minimal state
interference.
Primacy of Rule of Law:
● Development of legal frameworks prioritizing property rights and contractual
obligations to facilitate business growth and liberalization.
Part 3: Counter-Hegemonic Globalization – Boaventura de Sousa Santos
Globalization as Socially Constructed:
● Sousa Santos emphasizes that globalization is a political and socially constructed
phenomenon.
● Globalization involves interactions between:
○ Hegemonic (dominant) social groups, states, interests, and ideologies.
○ Counter-hegemonic (subordinate) groups, states, and ideologies, globally
opposing dominant narratives.
Insurgent Cosmopolitanism:
● Sousa Santos introduces the concept of "insurgent cosmopolitanism", describing
organized resistance against unequal exchanges intensified by globalization.
● It comprises transnational alliances among local groups negatively impacted by
globalization (economic, social, ecological, cultural exclusion).
Globalization's Features (Sousa Santos):
● Intensification of transnational interactions (production systems, financial transfers,
information dissemination, mass migration).
● Multifaceted phenomenon (economic, social, political, cultural, legal dimensions
interlinked).
● Combines universal integration with increased local particularity and diversity,
including a return to ethnic identities and local values.
● Creates significant global problems (inequality, environmental destruction, ethnic
violence, globalized organized crime).
● Despite internal differences, dominant (hegemonic) groups share foundational
agreements that define the prevailing character of globalization.
Fallacies of Globalization Discourse (Sousa Santos):
Sousa Santos critiques common misleading assumptions (fallacies) of globalization:
1. Determinist Fallacy:
○ Claims globalization is spontaneous, inevitable, and irreversible.
○ Masks political decisions behind globalization, wrongly presenting outcomes
as natural or unavoidable.
2. Fallacy of the Disappearance of the "Global South":
○ Assumes global integration erases distinctions and inequalities between
developed and developing nations.
○ Masks rising inequalities and overlooks negative consequences of neoliberal
globalization.
3. Contradictory Views on Globalization:
○ Promotes globalization as rational, liberating, innovative, and prosperous.
○ Conceals the associated misery, food insecurity, social exclusion, and
ecological damage inflicted on vulnerable populations.
● Instead of a singular "globalization," Sousa Santos proposes discussing
"globalizations" (plural), highlighting diverse, conflicting, and unequal outcomes.
Process-Based Definition (Sousa Santos):
Sousa Santos defines globalization as a series of unequal exchanges, where a local
condition or entity extends influence beyond local/national borders and designates rival
entities or conditions as subordinate ("local").
Implications:
● "Global" is not original or neutral but is the result of local powers achieving
dominance.
● "Local" becomes associated with subordination and inferiority within hierarchical
exchanges.
● Globalization represents successful globalization of particular local interests, ideas,
or practices.
Two Modes of Globalization Production:
1. Hegemonic Globalization:
● Globalized Localism:
○ A specific local phenomenon achieves global dominance.
○ Dictates conditions for global integration and inclusion (e.g., multinational
corporations, American cultural dominance, English as lingua franca).
● Localized Globalism:
○ Local conditions become subordinated or exploited by global powers.
○ Examples:
■ Replacement of local agriculture with export-oriented production.
■ Deforestation and resource exploitation driven by external debt.
■ Conversion of cultural heritage and wildlife for global tourism profits.
■ Ecological dumping (third-world countries accepting toxic waste).
■ Ethnic discrimination in labor markets, resulting in wage suppression.
● These processes together form neoliberal, "top-down," or hegemonic globalization.
2. Insurgent Cosmopolitanism (Counter-Hegemonic):
● Transnational resistance organized against hegemonic globalization.
● Not purely anti-globalization, but promotes alternative, fairer forms of globalization
(alter-globalization).
● Utilizes global communication networks, low-cost travel, and transnational solidarity
to resist exclusion and exploitation.
Insurgent Cosmopolitan Activities:
Include:
● North–South and South–South solidarity networks among NGOs and social
movements.
● Transnational worker coalitions across multinational corporations.
● Labor and citizenship coalitions against sweatshops, discrimination, and slavery.
● Transnational alternative legal support and human rights organizations.
● Feminist, indigenous, ecological, and alternative development movements.
● Artistic, literary, scientific movements seeking alternative, non-imperialistic cultural
values.
● Represented by the Alter-Globalization Movement (e.g., the World Social Forum).
