Advance Mathematics Rectangular Form Operations

• Addition and subtraction;

add/subtract read and
Complex Number – a number
imaginary parts separately.
containing a real or imaginary part.
a + bi o 𝑖 30 − 2𝑖 25 + 3𝑖17
= (𝑖 2 )15 − 2(𝑖 2 )12 𝑖 + 3(𝑖 2 )8 𝑖
a = real part = (−1)15 − 2(−1)12 𝑖 + 3(−1)8 𝑖
= −1 − 2𝑖 + 3𝑖
b = imaginary part = −1 + 1
• Multiplication; multiply like
Example polynomials
Identify the a (real part) and b
(imaginary part) o (3 + 2𝑖)(4 − 3𝑖)
= 12 − 9𝑖 + 8𝑖 − 6𝑖 2
= 12 − 𝑖 − 6(−1)
1. 2+3i = 18 − 𝑖

a=2 b=3 o (3 + 𝑖)2

= (3 + 𝑖)(3 + 𝑖)
= 9 + 2(3𝑖) + 𝑖 2
2. 2x+3yi
= 9 + 6𝑖 + (−1)
= 8 + 6𝑖
a = 2x b = 3y
• Conjugate (𝑧 ∗ ); just
change
Recall: the sign of the imaginary part.

▪ 𝑖0 = 1 o 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 → 𝑧 ∗ = 2 − 3𝑖
▪ 𝑖1 = √−1 o 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖 → 𝑧 ∗ = 2 + 3𝑖
▪ 𝑖 2 = −1 • Modulus |𝑧| = √𝑧𝑧 ∗
▪ 𝑖 3 = −𝑖
▪ 𝑖 2 𝑖1 = −1√−1 = −𝑖 o 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖
|𝑧| = √(2 + 3𝑖)(2 − 3𝑖)
Example:
= √4 − 9𝑖 2
Simplify: = √13
• Division; multiply the
1. 𝑖 7
numerator and denominator
(𝑖 2 )3 𝑖 = (−1)3 𝑖 = −1(𝑖) = −𝑖
by the conjugate of the
2. 𝑖 245
denominator.
(𝑖 2 )122 𝑖 = (−𝑖)122 𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑧1 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
o = 1× 2= 1 2
• Algebraic or Rectangular 𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧2
3+4𝑖
Form o
2−𝑖
o 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 3 + 4𝑖 2 + 𝑖
×
• Polar Form or Trigonometric 2−𝑖 2+𝑖
6 + 8𝑖 + 3𝑖 + 4𝑖 2
Form =
4 − 𝑖2 − 1
o 𝑟∠𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 =
6 + 8𝑖 + 3𝑖 + 4(−1)
4 − (−1) − 1
• Exponential Form 2 + 11𝑖
=
o 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 5
2 11
= + 𝑖
5 5
 • Example: Convert −2 + 4𝑖 to Polar form
• Polar Form 1. (-,+). Therefore, we need theta to be in
quadrant 2.
In the Argand Chart shown 2. 𝑟 = √(−2)2 + (4)2 = 2√5
4
3. 𝜃 = tan−1 (−2) = −63.43°
o 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
o 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 4. Current theta is in quadrant 4… so we
need to add 180°. Therefore, 𝜃 =
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
−63.43° + 180° = 116.57°
o 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑥 = 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
o 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖, 𝑦 = 𝑏 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
Answer: 2√5∠116.57°

Checking in calculator

1. Complex mode
2. Shift + 2[CMPLX] + 3 + =

Polar to Rectangular form

• 𝑟∠𝜃 to (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)
1. Solve for a 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2. Solve for b 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3. Put in 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 form

▪ Multiplication • Example: Convert 10∠75° to Rectangular

o 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 × 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 form
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) 1. a = 10cos75° = 2.59
o 5∠30° × 6∠45° 2. b = 10sin75° = 9.66
= 30∠75°
Answer: 2.59 + 9.66i
▪ Division
𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 𝑟 Checking in calculator
o = (𝑟1 ) ∠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2)
𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 2
45∠67° 45
o = (15) ∠(67 − 17) 1. Make sure calculator is in complex mode.
15∠17°
= 3∠50° 2. Enter the complex number in polar form.
3. Press = then “S⇔D” to see desired
format.
• Exponential Form
o 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 Rectangular to Exponential form
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 → 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃); 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 • (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) to 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → 𝑒𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 1. Identify the target quadrant.
➢ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 2. Solve for r (𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
𝜋 𝑏
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐴𝐷𝐼𝐴𝑁𝑆(1° 180) 3. Solve for 𝜃 (𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎)
o Express 5(cos135°+isin135°) 4. Subtract 180° if not in target quadrant.
in exponential form 5. Convert in 𝜃 radians form
135𝜋
➢ 𝑟 = 5; 𝜃 = 135° = 180 6. Put into 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 format
3𝜋
= = 2.36 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
4 • Example: Convert −3 − 4i to Exponential
3𝜋
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 5𝑒 4 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 5𝑒 2.36𝑖 form
1. (-,-). Therefore, quadrant 3
Conversions 2. 𝑟 = √(−3)2 + (−4)2 = 5
−4
3. 𝜃 = tan−1(−3) = 53.13°; not in quadrant 3.
Rectangular to Polar form We need to subtract 180°. Therefore 𝜃 =
𝜋
53.13° − 180° = −126.87° × 180 = −2.21
• 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 to 𝑟∠𝜃
1. Determine the target quadrant via the Answer: 5𝑒 −𝑖2.21
sign conventions.
Checking in calculator
2. Solve for r. (modulo) (𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑏
3. Solve for 𝜃. (𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎) 1. Put calculator in radian mode.
4. Note: theta should be fall on the target 2. Input complex number in rectangular
quadrant. Else, add 180° form.
3. Shift + 2[CMPLX] + 3 =
 • 13.3895
Example: Convert −2 to Exponential form 55.9𝑒 𝑖[ 2𝜋
]
; modulo = retaining the remainder
1. (-, null). Therefore, 𝜃 = 180° since there
is 180° when the number is plotted. 55.9𝑒 𝑖(2.1310) → 55.9𝑒 𝑖(0.1310) → 55.9𝑒 𝑖(0.1310)×2𝜋
2. 𝑟 = √(−2)2 + (0)2 = 2
3. 𝜃 = 180°; 55.9𝑒 𝑖0.8231
𝜋
4. Converting deg to radians… 180° × 180 = 𝜋
Checking in calculator
Answer: 2𝑒 −𝑖𝜋 1. Put calculator in radian mode.
2. Store the BASE complex number in
Checking in calculator
variable A of calculator.
1. Put calculator in radian mode (Shift + Shift + STO + A; −2 + 𝑖
Mode + 4) 3. Input |𝐴|𝑛 ∠ (n × arg(A));
2. Input complex number in rectangular |𝐴| = Shift + Hyp + Abs
form. arg = Shift + 2 + 1
3. Shift + 2[CMPLX] + 3 = |𝐴|5 ∠ (5 × arg(A));
we should get 38 + 41𝑖
Exponential to Rectangular form 4. Convert answer to polar form.
Shift + 2 + 3 + =
• 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 to (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) We should get 25√5 ∠0.8234
5. S⇔D to get decimal form of answer
1. Convert 𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 to 𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 ;
55.9∠0.8234
180
𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 ×
𝜋
2. Solve for a. Roots of a Complex Number
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑 +2𝑘𝜋
𝑛 (𝑛 )𝑖
3. Solve for b. √𝑧 = √𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ;𝑛 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡; 𝑘 = 0 𝑡𝑜 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
The value obtained when k = 0 is the principal value of 𝑛√𝑧
4. Put in 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 form.
Steps:
• Example: Convert 5𝑒 −𝑖2.21to Rectangular
form 1. Make sure calculator is in radians and
𝜋
1. 𝜃𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = −2.21 × 180 = −126.62° the base complex number is in
2. a = 5cos(-126.62°) = -2.98 exponential form.
𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑+2𝑘𝜋
3. b = 5cos(-126.62°) = 4.01 2. Proceed with using 𝑛√𝑧 = 𝑛√𝑟𝑒 ( 𝑛 )𝑖 ;
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡; 𝑘 = 0 𝑡𝑜 (𝑛 − 1) to solve for
Answer: −2.98 + 4.01𝑖
principal and other roots.
Power and Roots of Complex 1
• Example: Find the roots: (40.5 + 70.148𝑖)4
Numbers 1. 40.5 + 70.148𝑖 = 81∠𝑒1.0472𝑖
1

Integer Power of a Complex Number 2. (81∠𝑒1.0472𝑖 )4

1.0472+2𝑘𝜋
1
= (81)4 𝑒 ( 4 )𝑖
• 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑘𝜋
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 3𝑒 (0.2618+ 2 )𝑖
Therefore… 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 (0)𝜋
𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 Principal root (k = 0): 3𝑒(0.2618+ 2
)𝑖
= 3𝑒0.2168𝑖
But according to De Moivre’s Theorem… (1)𝜋
(0.2618+ 2 )𝑖
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = cos(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃) Other roots (k = 1,2,3): 3𝑒 = 3𝑒1.8326𝑖
Therefore…𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 = cos(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃) (2)𝜋
3𝑒 (0.2618+ )𝑖
2 = 3𝑒 3.4034𝑖
• Example: Evaluate (−2 + 𝑖)5 (3)𝜋
3𝑒 (0.2618+ )𝑖
1. Convert to polar form. 2 = 3𝑒 4.9742𝑖
(make sure you are in radian mode)
o Input in calculator −2 + 𝑖
o Shift + 2 + 3
o √5𝑒 𝑖2.6779
2. Raise to desired 𝑁 𝑡ℎ power.
(√5)5 𝑒 𝑖2.6779
55.9𝑒 𝑖13.3895; since 𝜃 should be 0 − 2𝜋
only (0 − 6.28), we need to mod theta by
2𝜋 and get corresponding angle.
Complex Logarithms and Complex 𝑥 = 𝑧𝑎
Power 1. Evaluate the exponent.
ln 𝑥 = 𝑎 ln 𝑧
Complex Logarithms
2. Raise the exponent to e.
• 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝑘𝜋) 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎 ln 𝑧
ln 𝑧 = ln[𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝑘𝜋) ] • Example: Evaluate (−3 + 4𝑖)2−𝑖
−3 + 4𝑖 = 5𝑒 𝑖2.2143
= ln 𝑟 + ln[𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝑘𝜋) ]
Let 𝑥 = (5𝑒 𝑖2.2143)2−𝑖
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) ln 𝑥 = (2 − 𝑖) ln(5𝑒 𝑖2.2143)
ln 𝑥 = (2 − 𝑖) ln 5 + 𝑖2.2143
The complex natural logarithm ln z is ln 𝑥 = 2 ln 5 + 𝑖4.4286 − ln 5 − 𝑖 2 2.2143
infinitely many valued. ln 𝑥 = 2 ln 5 + 𝑖4.4286 − ln 5 − (−1)2.2143
ln 𝑥 = 2 ln 5 + 𝑖4.4286 − ln 5 + 2.2143
Principal value of ln z: ln 𝑥 = 5.433 + 𝑖2.8192
𝑥 = 𝑒 (5.433+𝑖2.8192)
Ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖𝜃 −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤𝜋 𝑎(𝑥+𝑦) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑒 5.433 𝑒 𝑖2.8192
• Example: Evaluate ln −4 and ln(−𝑖) 𝑥 = 228.83𝑒 𝑖2.8192
−4 = 4𝑒 𝑖𝜋 𝑥 = −217.04 + 𝑖72.50
Ln(−4) = ln(4𝑒 𝑖𝜋 )
= ln 4 + 𝑖𝜋
ln(−4) = ln 4 + 𝑖(𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋) Trigonometric Functions of
𝜋
−𝑖 = 𝑒 −𝑖 2 Complex Number
From Euler’s Identity
𝜋
Ln(−𝑖) = ln 1 + 𝑖 (− )
2 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥
𝜋
= −𝑖 ← Principal Value
2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥
𝜋
ln(−𝑖) = − 𝑖( + 2𝑘𝜋) ← Generic Value
2 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 2cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖2 sin 𝑥

• Evaluate 𝑖 −2𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥

𝑥=𝑖 −2𝑖 cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 =
2 2𝑖
ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑖 −2𝑖
ln 𝑥 = −2𝑖ln 𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑧
cos 𝑧 = sin 𝑧 =
𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑖ln 𝑖 2 2𝑖
𝑖𝜋 sin 𝑧
ln 𝑖 = ln 1 + 𝑒 2 tan 𝑧 =
𝜋 cos 𝑧
ln 𝑖 = 𝑖
2
𝜋)
−2𝑖(𝑖
𝜋
−2𝑖 2 ( )
𝑥=𝑒 2 =𝑒 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Hyperbolic Functions
−2(−1)( ) 2(1)( ) 2( )
𝑥=𝑒 2 =𝑒 2 =𝑒 2
𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧
𝑥 = 𝑒𝜋 cosh 𝑧 =
2
𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧
Complex Power sinh 𝑧 =
2
• If a complex number is z is
raised to another complex
number a, do the following
steps:
Example: Show that: Complex Trigonometric
Hyperbolic Relations
cos 𝑧 = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − isin x sinh 𝑦

cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

𝑒𝑖(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) + 𝑒−𝑖(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) • cos 𝑖𝑥 = cosh 𝑥

cos 𝑧 = cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑖(𝑖𝑥) +𝑒 −𝑖(𝑖𝑥)
2 cos 𝑖𝑥 =
2
𝑒𝑖𝑥 𝑒−𝑦 + 𝑒−𝑖𝑥 𝑒𝑦 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
= = =
2 2 2
𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑒 −𝑦 + (cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑒 𝑦 cosh 𝑥 =
2
=
2 cos 𝑖𝑥 = cosh 𝑥
(𝑒 −𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦 ) (𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 )
= cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥
2 2
• sin 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥
cos 𝑧 = cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 𝑒𝑖(𝑖𝑥) − 𝑒−𝑖(𝑖𝑥)
sin 𝑖𝑥 =
2𝑖
𝑒−𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 𝑖
= ×
Example: Show that: 2𝑖 𝑖
𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
sin 𝑧 = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − icos x sinh 𝑦 = 𝑖( ) = 𝑖( )
−2 2
sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑖 sinh 𝑥 = 𝑖 ( )
2
𝑒𝑖(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) − 𝑒−𝑖(𝑥+𝑖𝑦)
sin 𝑧 = sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥
2𝑖
𝑒𝑖𝑥 𝑒−𝑦 − 𝑒−𝑖𝑥 𝑒𝑦
=
2𝑖 • cosh 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑒 −𝑦 − (cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥)𝑒 𝑦 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= cosh 𝑖𝑥 =
𝑖2 2
(sin 𝑥 − 𝑖 cos 𝑥)𝑒−𝑦 (sin 𝑥 + 𝑖 cos 𝑥)𝑒𝑦 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= + cos 𝑥 =
2 2 2
cosh 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥
(𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 ) (𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 )
= sin 𝑥 − 𝑖 cos 𝑥
2 2
sin 𝑧 = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 • sinh 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 sin 𝑥
𝑒𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑖𝑥 𝑖
sinh 𝑖𝑥 = ×
2 𝑖
𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑥
Example: cos(2 − 𝑖 ) 𝑒 −𝑒
=𝑖( )
2𝑖
cos(2 − 𝑖) = cos(2) cosh(−1) − 𝑖 sin(2) sinh(−1)
𝑒𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒𝑖𝑥
cos(2 − 𝑖 ) = −0.642 + 𝑖1.069 𝑖 sin 𝑥 = 𝑖 ( )
2𝑖
sinh 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 sin 𝑥

Example: cos(3𝑖 )
sin(3𝑖) = sin(0) cosh(3) + 𝑖 cos(0) sinh(3)

sin(3𝑖 ) = 𝑖10.018
Matrices and Determinants one column is a column
vector. Matrix (4) is a row
Matrix - a rectangular array of
vector while matrix (5) is a
numbers or functions enclosed by a
column vector.
pair of brackets. These numbers or
functions are called entries or
• The double subscript notation
commonly known as elements.
A = [ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], i correspond to the
The following are examples of row number while j
matrices. corresponds to column
number where the element aij
stands.
where: i = 1, , , ..., m and j = 1,
, , ..., n
• A matrix with m number of
rows and n number of columns
is considered or order or size
m by n or “m× n”

LINEAR SYSTEMS, MAJOR

APPLICATION OF MATRICES
A matrix can also be represented by
In a system of linear equations, called
array of numbers enclosed by a pair
a linear system, such as
of parenthesis, ( ) or by a pair of
double bars, ‖ ‖.
Consider the matrix

The coefficients of the unknowns x, y

and z are the entries of the coefficient
matrix, call it matrix A,

• The numbers or function 𝑎𝑖𝑗

are called the elements of the
matrix.
• The horizontal array of
elements [ ] is called a row. The matrix
• The vertical array of elements
is called a column.

• A matrix that
contains only one
row or column is is obtained by augmenting A by the
called a vector. right sides of the linear system and is
Thus, a matrix with called the augmented matrix of the
only one row is called a row system.
vector and a matrix with only
EQUALITY OF MATRIX
Two matrices A and B are to be said
equal if they have the same order and
each element of matrix A is exactly the
same as the corresponding elements
of matrix B.
Or

Example: Solve for x and y, if A = B

Note: (AT )T = A
4. Square Matrix – a matrix in which
Since A = B, thus the number of row and column are
equal.

and
The elements a11 , a22 and a33 are
called the diagonal elements. The
diagonal elements are located in the
principal diagonal. The principal
SPECIAL TYPES OF MATRICES
diagonal is where the row and column
1. Row Matrix – a matrix having only number is equal. An n × n square
one row of elements. matrix is said to have an order “n”.
The sum of the diagonal elements is
called the Trace of A.
2. Column Matrix – a matrix having
only one column of elements.
5. Null Matrix or Zero Matrix – is a
matrix in which all elements are zero.

3. Transposed Matrix – if a matrix A of

order m × n, the transpose of matrix A 6. Diagonal Matrix – a square matrix
denoted by AT is another matrix of n × in which all elements are zero except
m order obtained by interchanging for the diagonal elements.
corresponding rows and columns of
A.
7. Triangular Matrix – is a square 13. Symmetric Matrix – if a matrix A is
matrix in which who’s elements below equal to the transpose of a matrix B,
or above the principal diagonal is then they are symmetrical matrix. Or if
zero. a matrix A is equal to its transpose,
matrix A is said to be symmetric.

8. Scalar Matrix – a diagonal matrix in

which all the diagonal elements are
equal.

14. Involutory Matrix – a matrix A that

9. Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix – is a is equal to its inverse is said to be
scalar matrix in which the diagonal involutory matrix.
elements are all one. This is denoted
𝐴 = 𝐴−1
by I.
15. Real Matrix – a matrix A that is
equal to its conjugate matrix is a real
matrix.

10. Inverse Matrix – the inverse of a 𝐴=𝐴

square matrix A denoted by A-1 is a
matrix satisfying the equation. 16. Orthogonal Matrix – a matrix A
that is equal to the inverse of its
(𝐴)(𝐴−1 ) = 𝐼 transpose matrix is an orthogonal
matrix.
11. Conjugate Matrix – is a matrix
containing complex elements, then 𝐴 = (𝐴𝑇 )−1
the conjugate of each element is the
corresponding element of the 17. Hermitian or Associate or
conjugate matrix denoted by Ā or A*. Tranjugate Matrix – a matrix A that is
equal to the transpose of its
complement matrix is a Hermitian
matrix.

𝐴 = (𝐴)𝑇
18. Unitary Matrix – a matrix A that is
equal to the inverse of the transpose
12. Pure Imaginary Matrix – for a of its complement matrix is a unitary
matrix A, if A = Ā, the A is a pure matrix.
imaginary matrix. 𝑇
𝐴 = (𝐴 )−1
19. Skew Matrix – a matrix A = [ aij ], if
for unequal i and j, aij = −aij , but the
elements aij are not all zero, then the
matrix is called skew.
20. Skew Symmetric Matrix – a matrix Addition Conformity: Two matrices
A that is equal to the negative of its can only be added if and only if they
transpose is called s skew symmetric have the same order, this is to be said
matrix. that they are conformable for addition.

𝐴 = −(𝐴)𝑇 The sum k equal matrix is equal to

another matrix whose elements are
21.Skew Hermitian Matrix – a matrix A obtained by multiplying each element
that is equal to the negative of the of the given matrix to the total number
transpose of its complement matrix is of matrix to be added.
a skew Hermitian matrix.

𝐴 = −(𝐴)𝑇
OPERATIONS ON MATRICES The negative of a matrix A of order m
× n is another matrix of the same order
ADDITION each of whose elements are obtained
Given two matrices A and B both of by multiplying each element of A by
order m × n, then their sum or negative one. Thus, ( ) = , where 0 is
difference is a matrix C of order m × n not the scalar zero but a zero matrix
obtained by adding or subtracting of order m × n.
every element of A to the Properties of Matrix Addition
corresponding elements in B.
Given matrices A, B and C that are
Example: conformable for addition and a scalar
k, then
1. A + B = B + A
Addition is Commutative
Solve for: C = A + B 2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
D=A–B Addition is Associative
3. k(A + B) = k A + k B
E=B–A Distributive
Example

Evaluate:
1. 3A – B
2. A + B + C
3. 2B + 5C
Solution: The Product AB is a 2 × 2 matrix
1. 3A – B

The Product BA is 3 × 3 matrix

2. A + B + C Example:

1. AB
3. 2B + 5C

2. BA

MULTIPLICATION
Given a matrix A of order m × p and a
matrix B of order p × n, then the
product AB in that order is another
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
matrix C of order m × n obtained by
multiplying each element in the row of 1. In general, matrix multiplication is
matrix A to each element in the not commutative.
corresponding column of matrix B. 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
2. If the product AB = 0, it is not
Multiplication Conformity: only implied that A = 0 or B = 0.
conformable matrix can be multiplied. Consider:
Two matrices are conformable for
multiplication if the number of
columns of matrix A is equal to the
rows of matrix B.
Example 3. Matrix multiplication is distributed
over addition. Given three
conformable matrices A, B and C.

𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
(𝐵 + 𝐶)𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 _ 𝐶𝐴
 4. Matrix multiplication is DETERMINANTS
associative. Given three
conformable matrices A, B and C. Determinant - is a scalar-valued
𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 function whose domain is a set of
square matrices. A determinant
5. The transpose of the product AB function is denoted by ∣A∣ or det A ∣A∣
is equal to the product of the is called the determinant of A. If each
corresponding transposes taken element of a matrix A is expressed
in the reversed order. explicitly as
𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶

6. The transpose of the product AB

is equal to the product of the
corresponding transposes taken
in the reversed order.
(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 The determinant of A is expressed as

In general:
(𝐴1 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑛 )𝑇 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑇 … 𝐴2 𝑇 𝐴1 𝑇

Product by Partitioning Matrices

The elements, rows, columns,
Given a matrix A of order m × p and a principal diagonal and secondary
matrix B of order p × n, then the diagonals of matrix A will also be the
product AB can also be obtained by corresponding elements, rows,
partitioning the columns of A and rows columns, principal diagonals and
of B in exactly the same way.
secondary diagonals of the
Let determinant function.
MINORS
The minor Mij of an element aij of a
determinant ∣A∣ of order n is a new
determinant of order n – 1 formed by
deleting the ith row and the jth column
of the original determinant ∣A∣.

Partitioning A and B
If −4 −6
𝐴23 = | |
−5 8
1 −2 1 −2
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 | | = (−1)2 | |
−8 1 −8 1
4 6
= (1) | |
5 −8
Then 1 −2
𝐴11 = | |
−8 1

VALUE OF DETERMINANT
FUNCTIONS
1.) Of order 1
The value of a determinant of order 1
is the element: ∣A∣ = ∣a∣ = a
Example:
2.) Of order 2

Solution:
3.) Of order 3
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
COFACTOR is found by rewriting the first two
columns adjacent to the last column of
The cofactor Aij of an element aij of a
the original determinant and then
determinant of order n is a new
performing the diagonal operation
determinant of order n – 1 given by
indicated.
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗

The cofactor is also called the signed

minor.
+ − +
|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 −
𝐴 = [− + −]
+ − + 𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12

Example 4.) Of order n ≥ 2

4 6 9 The value of a determinant of order n
𝐴 = [6 1 −2] find 𝐴23 and 𝐴11 ≥ can be solved using the Laplace
5 −8 1
Expansion Formula. Consider the
Solution determinant A
4 6 4 6
𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 | | = (−1)5 | |
5 −8 5 −8
4 6
= (−1) | |
5 −8
The value is solved by: 6 1
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 | | = 51
3 9
5 1
𝐴12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −46
−1 9
5 6
Examples: 𝐴13 = (−1)1+3 | | = 21
−1 3
Find the value of the following |𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝐴11 + 𝑎12 𝐴12 + 𝑎13 𝐴13
determinants.
= 3 × 51 + (−2) × 46 + 4 × 21
1. |𝐴| = |−43|
2. |𝐵| = |26| |𝐴| = 329
1 −2
3. |𝐶 | = | |
6 3
3 −2 4 Choosing Row 2, i = 2
4. |𝐷 | = | 5 6 1| 3
−1 3 9 |𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎2𝑘 𝐴2𝑘
Solutions: 𝑘=1

−2 4
1. |𝐴| = |−43| 𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 | | = 30
3 9
|𝐴| = |−43| = −43
3 4
𝐴22 = (−1)2+2 | | = 31
−1 9
2. |𝐵| = |26|
|𝐵| = |26| = 26 3 −2
𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 | | = −7
−1 3
1 −2 |𝐴| = 𝑎21 𝐴21 + 𝑎22 𝐴22 + 𝑎23 𝐴23
3. |𝐶 | = | |
6 3
|𝐶 | = 1 × 3 − 6 × −2 = 15 = −1 × (−26) + 3 × 17 + 9 × 28
|𝐴| = 329
3 −2 4
4. |𝐷 | = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9 Choosing Row 3, i = 3
|𝐷 | = (3)(6)(9) + (-2)(1)(-1) +
3
(4)(5)(3) - (-1)(6)(4) - (3)(1)(3) -
(9)(5)(-2) |𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎3𝑘 𝐴3𝑘
|𝐷 | = 329 𝑘=1

−2 4
𝐴21 = (−1)3+1 | | = −26
6 1
Using LaPlace Expansion, n = 3 3 4
𝐴22 = (−1)3+2 | | = 17
3 −2 4 5 1
|𝐷 | = | 5 6 1| 3 −2
−1 3 9 𝐴23 = (−1)3+3 | | = 28
5 6
Choosing Row 1, i = 1 |𝐴| = 𝑎31 𝐴31 + 𝑎32 𝐴32 + 𝑎33 𝐴33
3
= −1 × (−26) + 3 × 17 + 9 × 28
|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎1𝑘 𝐴1𝑘
𝑘=1 |𝐴| = 329
Choosing Column 1, i = 1 3 −2
𝐴33 = (−1)3+2 | | = 28
5 6
3
|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎1𝑘 𝐴𝑘1 |𝐴| = 𝑎13 𝐴13 + 𝑎23 𝐴23 + 𝑎33 𝐴33
𝑘=1
= 4 × (21) + 1 × (−7) + 9 × 28
6 1
𝐴11 = (−1)1+1 | | = 51 |𝐴| = 329
3 9
−2 4
𝐴21 = (−1)2+1 | | = 30
3 9
Properties of Determinants
−2 4
𝐴31 = (−1)3+1 | | = −26
6 1 1. The number of terms in the
expansion of a determinant of order n
|𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝐴11 + 𝑎21 𝐴21 + 𝑎31 𝐴31
is equal to n!
= 3 × 51 + 5 × 30 + (−1) × (−26)
Example:
|𝐴| = 329 𝑎 𝑎12
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12 ;
21

order 2, 2 terms = 2!
Choosing Column 2, i = 2
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
3
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | ;
|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎𝑘2 𝐴𝑘2 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑘=1
order 3, 6 terms = 3!
5 1
𝐴12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −46
−1 9 |𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 −

3 4 𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑎13 − 𝑎32 𝑎23 𝑎11 − 𝑎33 𝑎21 𝑎12

𝐴22 = (−1)2+2 | | = 31
−1 9
2. Interchanging the corresponding
3 4
𝐴32 = (−1)3+2 | | = 17 row or column of a determinant does
5 1 not change its value.
|𝐴| = 𝑎12 𝐴12 + 𝑎22 𝐴22 + 𝑎32 𝐴32

= −2 × (−46) + 6 × 31 + 3 × 17
|𝐴| = 329
3. If any two rows or columns of a
determinant are interchanged, then its
sign will be changed.
Choosing Column 3, i = 3
3
|𝐴| = ∑ 𝑎𝑘3 𝐴𝑘3
𝑘=1
4. If all the elements of any row or
5 6 column of a determinant is zero, then
𝐴13 = (−1)1+3 | | = 21
−1 3 its value is zero.
3 −2
𝐴23 = (−1)2+3 | | = −7
−1 3
5. If the elements of a certain row or Example: Evaluate the determinant
column of a determinant are using the properties of determinants.
proportional or identical to the
3 −2 4
elements of another row or column, |𝐴| = | 5 6 1|
then its value is zero. −1 3 9
Solution: Transform the determinant
into a triangular determinant.

6. If the elements of a certain row or

column of a determinant are multiplied
by a scalar k then added to the
corresponding elements of another
row or column, then its value is
unchanged.

PIVOTAL METHOD OF
EVALUATING DETERMINANTS
Procedure

7.If each element of any row or 1. If a determinant of order n has an

column of a determinant is multiplied element unity (=1) use this as the
by a scalar k, then its value is pivotal element. Otherwise use a
multiplied by k. convenient say aij .and divide the row
or column containing this element and
then balance the determinant by
multiplying its value by aij .

8. The sum of the products formed by 2. Cross out the row and column
multiplying each element of any row or containing aij .
column of a determinant by the
cofactor of another row or column is 3. From each element of the resulting
zero. determinant of order n – 1 subtract the
product of the elements common to
the intersection of the row and column
containing aij with the row and column
containing that element.
Then 𝑎11 𝐴21 + 𝑎12 𝐴22 + 𝑎13 𝐴23 = 0 or
4. To find the determinant multiply the
𝑎11 𝐴12 + 𝑎21 𝐴22 + 𝑎31 𝐴32 = 0 resulting determinant by (−1)ij.
9. The value of a triangular or diagonal Example: Evaluate the determinant
determinant is the product of its
3 −2 4
diagonals. |𝐴| = | 5 6 1|
−1 3 9
Solution: There is a unity element thus −4 −5 5 −4 −5
it will be the pivotal element, i = 2, j = |𝐴| = | 7 −3 6 | 7 −3
3 19 0 13 19 0
|𝐴|= (−4)(−3)(13) + (−5)(6)(19) +
(5)(7)(0) − (19)(−3)(5) −
(0)(6)(−4) − (13)(7)(−5)
|𝐴| = 156 − 570 + 285 + 455

|𝐴| = 326

Alternate Solution: Use element a31 = SUBMATRIX

−1
A submatrix of a matrix A is a matrix
of smaller size obtained by omitting
row/s or column/s.
Example: List all the submatrices of
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
|𝐴| = |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓|
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
Solution
3 × 2 submatrices

Example: Solve the 4×4 matrix.

2 14 3 1
|𝐴| = |1 5 −1 3
| 3 × 1 submatrices
1 −2 2 −3
3 −4 −3 −4
2 14 3 1
|𝐴| = |1 5 −1 3
|
1 −2 2 −3 2 × 3 submatrices
3 −4 −3 −4
2 14 3 1
|𝐴| = (−1)2+1 |1 5 −1 3
|
1 −2 2 −3
3 −4 −3 −4 2 × 2 submatrices
14 − (2 × 5) 3 − (2 × −1) 1 − (2 × 3)
|𝐴| = |−2 − (5 × 1) 2 − (1 × −1) −3 − (3 × 1)|
−4 − (5 × 3) −3 − (−1 × 3) −4 − (3 × 3)

4 5 −5
|𝐴| = − | −7 3 −6 |
−19 0 −13
2 × 1 submatrices Solution:
2 × 2 submatrices

1 × 3 submatrices
Their determinants

1 × 2 submatrices

1 × 1 submatrices

Since the determinants of all the 2 × 2

submatrices are zero, therefore the
RANK OF MATRIX
rank is one.
The rank of a matrix is the highest
ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
number r if there exists an r × r
submatrix whose determinant is not The adjoint of a square matrix A of
equal to zero. order n denoted by adj A is the
transpose of a cofactor matrix. A
The determinant of a square matrix of
cofactor matrix denoted by C is
order r + 1 is equal to zero.
another matrix of order n in which all
The highest rank of an m × n matrix is its elements in matrix A are replaced
the smaller of the numbers m and n by their respective cofactor.
and can be less.
For a square matrix A of order n, if the
Say, matrix A
rank r = n, then matrix A is called non-
singular.
For a square matrix A of order n, if the
rank r≠n, then the determinant of A is
zero Then,

Then matrix A is called singular.

Example:
Determine the rank of matrix.
Example: Find the adjoint of the matrix
3 6 2
|𝐴| = |4 −5 3 |
2 3 −6
Solution:
[(−5 × −6) − (3 × 3)]

INVERSE OF A MATRIX MATRIX DIVISION

The inverse or reciprocal of a matrix A The quotient of two matrices A/B can
denoted by 𝐴−1 satisfies the equation be expressed as a product of matrix A
= 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼 , where I is and identity and the inverse of B, if they will be
matrix with the same order as A. conformable for multiplication.
The inverse of a matrix A is given by A
the equation. = 𝐴𝐵 −1
𝐵
adj A
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|
Example: Solve for A/B
Note: Only square non-singular or
1 2 7 3
non-zero matrices have inverse! 𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ]
4 3 2 1
Example: Find the inverse of the
matrix
Solution
1 2 4
𝐴 = |−1 0 3|
3 1 −2
Solution
1 2 4
|𝐴| = |−1 0 3|
3 1 −2
|𝐴| = (1)(0)(−2)+(2)(3)(3) + (4)(−1)(1) −
(3)(0)(4) − (1)(3)(1) − (−2)(−1)(2) = 7
Systems of Linear Equations – is a Consistent
collection of one or more linear
- at least one solution
equations involving the same
- intersecting lines
variables. A solution to a linear system
is an assignment of values to the
variables such that all the equations
are simultaneously satisfied.
Homogeneous – all right most column
of a system is 0. It always has a trivial
solution. The unknown values may
have a value equal to 0.
Example: Inconsistent

2x + y + z = 0 - no solution
- parallel lines
2x + 3y + 2z = 0 - same line
3x + 4y + 5z = 0 - same slope

Non-Homogeneous – at least one on

the right most column is a non-zero.
Example: Example:
2x + y + z = 0 Consistent or Inconsistent
2x + 3y + 2z = 1 1. x + 2y = 13
3x + 4y + 5z = 0 2. 3x – y = -11
Underdetermined – number of 1.) 2.)
equations are less than the number of
unknowns and always have non-trivial X Y X Y
solutions. 0 6.5 0 11
13 0 11
Example: − 0
3
x+y+z=3 Needs 3 equations
for the 3 unknowns.
x + 2y + 3z = 7
Overdetermined – number of
equations are greater than the
number of unknowns.
Example:
x+y=2
Only need 2 equations
x + 3y = 3 for the 2 unknowns
2x + y = 4
Solving of System of Linear Equations Solving for Eigenvalues of a matrix
1. 2x + y + z = 7 |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
2. 2x – y + 2z = 6
3. x – 2y + z = 0 1. Make sure it is a square
matrix.
Find the value of x, y, and z. 2. Find matrix 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼
3. Get 𝐷𝑒𝑡|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | and equate to
Solution:
zero.
Eq.1 + Eq.2 4. Calculate all possible values
of 𝜆.
(2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7) + (2 − +𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6)
Example:
= 4𝑥 + 3𝑧 = 13 Eq.4
Find the Eigenvalue of the following
2(Eq.1) + Eq.3 matrix.
2(2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7) + 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 2 1
𝐴=[ ]
4 5
(4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 14) + 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
1. Square matrix? ✓
= 5𝑥 + 3𝑧 = 14 Eq.5 2 1 1 0
2. 𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = [ ]−𝜆[ ]
Eq.4 + (-Eq.5) 4 5 0 1
2 1 𝜆 0
=[ ]−[ ]
(4𝑥 + 3𝑧 = 13) + (−5𝑥 − 3𝑧 = −14) 4 5 0 𝜆
2−𝜆 1
𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 = [ ]
−𝑥 = −1 4 5−𝜆
3. 𝐷𝑒𝑡|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = (2 − 𝜆)(5 − 𝜆) − 4
𝑥 = 1 substitute to Eq.4 = 10 − 5𝜆 − 2𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 4
= 6 − 7𝜆 + 𝜆2
4(1) + 3𝑧 = 13 = 𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 6
13 − 4 9 = (𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 6)
𝑧= = 𝜆−1 =0 →𝜆 =1
3 3
𝜆−6 =0 →𝜆 =6
𝑧 = 3 substitute to Eq.1
Eigenvalues are 1 and 6.
2(1) + 𝑦 + (3) = 7

𝑦 =7−3−2
Properties of Eigenvalues
𝑦=2
1. Trace of [𝐴] = ∑(Eigenvalues)
𝑥=1 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + ⋯ + 𝜆𝑛
2. 𝐷𝑒𝑡|𝐴| = 𝜆1 × 𝜆2 × … × 𝜆𝑛
𝑦=2 3. If a matrix is raised to k, its
Eigenvalues are also raised to k.
𝑧=3 [𝐴]𝑘 = 𝜆1 𝑘 , 𝜆2 𝑘 , 𝜆𝑛 𝑘
4. [𝐴] is invertible if and only if
𝜆1 … 𝜆𝑛 are non-zero.
5. If [𝐴] is invertible, its 𝐴−1 is
1 1 1
, ,…,𝜆 .
𝜆 𝜆
1 2 𝑛
Laplace Transform – is an integral 1
transformation of a function f(t) from the = [ lim 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 − 𝑒 0 ]
𝑎 − 𝑠 𝑡→∞
time domain to the frequency domain, 0 1
giving F(s). 1 −(𝑠−𝑎)𝑡 0
= [ lim 𝑒 −𝑒 ]
𝑎 − 𝑠 𝑡→∞
𝑓(𝑡) → Laplace Transform → 𝐹(𝑠)
−1
𝑡≥0 =
𝑎−𝑠
∞ 1
𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℒ{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
0 𝑠−𝑎

s = complex frequency variable 1

𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ⇔
𝑠−𝑎
s = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔
1
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 ⇔
𝑓(𝑡) ⇔ 𝐹(𝑠) ← Laplace transform pair 𝑠+𝑎
SYSTEM
Input x(t) → (with zero ICs) → Output 𝑦(𝑡)
(with zero ICs)
Laplace Transform of Common
Functions
Steps to solve DE with Laplace
Transform 𝑘
ℒ{𝑘 } =
𝑠
1. Given IVP (DE)
2. Apply Transform (DE to AP) 𝑛!
ℒ{𝑡 𝑛 } =
3. Solution to Algebraic Problem 𝑠𝑛+1
4. Inverse Transform (Solution to 1
IVP) ℒ{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
𝑠−𝑎
𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝐻(𝑠) → Transfer Function 𝑘
𝑋(𝑠) ℒ{sin𝑘𝑡 } =
𝑠2
+ 𝑘2
The Laplace Transform of an 𝑠
Exponential ℒ{cos𝑘𝑡 } = 2
𝑠 + 𝑘2
Obtain the Laplace Transform of the
𝑘
exponential function, 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0 ℒ{sinh𝑘𝑡 } =
𝑠2 − 𝑘 2
Solution: 𝑠
∞ ℒ{cosh𝑘𝑡 } = 2
𝑠 − 𝑘2
ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Recall: ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑐
0 Unit Impulse Function
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = (𝑎 − 𝑠)𝑡
∞
1 𝑡=0
ℒ{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑎 − 𝑠)𝑑𝑡 𝛿(𝑡) = {
0
0 𝑡≠0
∞ Dirac 𝛿 Function
ℒ{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = ∫ 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∞
0
ℒ{𝛿(𝑡)} = ∫ 1𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒𝑢 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 ∞ 0
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 = | ∞
𝑎−𝑠 𝑎−𝑠 0
ℒ{𝛿(𝑡)} = ∫ 1𝑒 −𝑠(0) 𝑑𝑡 𝛿(𝑡) ⇔ 1
0
Unit Step Function 4. 𝑡 2 + 2𝑒 −𝑡
2! 1
1 𝑡≥0 +2
𝑢(𝑡) = { 𝑠 2+1 𝑠+1
0 𝑡<0
2 2
+
Heaviside Function 𝑠3 𝑠 + 1
1 1
1 2( 3 + )
𝑢(𝑡) ⇔ 𝑠 𝑠+1
𝑠
Important Properties of Laplace
Table of Common Laplace
Transform
Transforms
1. Linearity Property
f(t) F(s) 𝑎𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑡) ⇔ 𝑎𝐹 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝐺(𝑠)
Unit Impulse Function,
1
𝜹(𝒕)
1 2. Scaling Property
Unit Step Function, 𝒖(𝒕)
𝑠 1 𝑠
𝑘 𝑓 (𝑎𝑡) ⇔ 𝐹( )
Constant Function, 𝒌 𝑎 𝑎
𝑠
1
Exponential, 𝒆𝒂𝒕 3. Differentiation Property
𝑠−𝑎
𝑑 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑘 𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡) ⇔ (−1)𝑛
Sine, 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒌𝒕
𝑠2 + 𝑘2 𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑠 Example: 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
Cosine, 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒌𝒕 𝑑 2
𝑠2 + 𝑘2
(−1)1 ( 2 )
𝑛! 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 4
Power Function, 𝒕𝒏
𝑠 𝑛+1 (𝑠 2 + 4)0 − 2(2𝑠)
= −[ ]
Hyperbolic Sine, 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝒌𝒕
𝑘 (𝑠 2 + 4)2
𝑠2 − 𝑘2 0 − 2(2𝑠)
𝑠 = −[ 2 ]
Hyperbolic Cosine, 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝒌𝒕
𝑠2 − 𝑘2
(𝑠 + 4)2
4𝑠
= 2
(𝑠 + 4)2
Examples:
4. First Shifting Theorem
1. 𝛿(𝑡) + 2𝑢(𝑡) − 3𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) ⇔ 𝐹(𝑠 − 𝑎)
2 1 Example: 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑡
1+ −3 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠+2 𝐹 (𝑠 ) = 2
2 3 𝑠 + 16
1+ − 𝑠+3
𝑠 𝑠+2 𝐹 (𝑠 − 𝑎 ) =
(𝑠 + 3)2 + 16
2. (5𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡 + 4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠 5 5. Second Shifting Theorem
5 2 +4 2 𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) ⇔ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠 +9 𝑠 + 25 Example: (𝑡 − 2)𝑢(𝑡 − 2)
5𝑠 20
+ 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡, 𝑎 = 2
𝑠2 + 9 𝑠2 + 25 1! 1
𝑒 −2𝑠 1+1 = 𝑒 −2𝑠 2
3. 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) 𝑠 𝑠
1! 𝑒 −2𝑠
𝑠 1+1 𝑠2
1
𝑠2
Summary

• Laplace transform formulas

are very useful in obtaining the
transform of various function.
• Two notable singularity
functions are the unit impulse,
and the unit step functions,
otherwise known as the Dirac
and the Heaviside functions,
respectively.
• If a function is multiplied by a
power function, the
corresponding Laplace
transform is obtained using
the differentiation property.
• An exponential in the time
domain corresponds to a shift
in the frequency domain (first
shifting theorem).
• Conversely, a time shift on the
other hand results to an
exponential in the s domain
(second shifting theorem).
Exercises
Write the transpose of the following
matrices.

1. 𝐴 = |6 −5 2 4 0|
6
−5
𝐴 = | 2 ||
𝑇 |
4
0
9 −1 6 7
2. 𝐵 = | |
−5 3 0 4
9 −5
𝑇 −1 3
𝐵 =| |
6 0
7 4

2 8
3. 𝐶 = |−6 0 |
7 −1
𝑇 2 −6 7
𝐶 =| |
8 0 −1
1 −3 4
4. 𝐷 = |−3 0 2|
4 2 5
1 −3 4
𝐷 𝑇 = |−3 0 2|
4 2 5
For matrices A and B, verify that
(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇
1 −3 4
5. 𝐴 = |−3 0 2|
4 2 5