II.

COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION THEORY AND ITS ALLIED THEORIES

A. Social Presence
- Social presence is now a central concept in online learning. It has been considered
as a key component in theoretical frameworks for learning networks (Benbunan-Fich
et.al, 2005) and distance education (Vrasidas & Glass, 2002).

PIONEERS OF SOCIAL PRESENCE THEORY

- was originally developed by John Short, Ederyn Williams, and Bruce Christie (1976).

SOCIAL PRESENCE THEORY

- is founded to explain the effect of telecommunication media on communication
- explores how the “sense of being with another” is influenced by digital devices in
human- computer interactions.

ORIGINS
- Social presence is conceptualized by Short et.al (1976) primarily as a quality of a
communication medium that can determine the way people interact and
communicate.
•Immediacy - identified as non-verbal behaviors that can enhance closeness
in interactions.
•Intimacy - is the combination of eye contact, physical proximity, and
smiling.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MEDIA ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF SOCIAL PRESENCE

- Social Presence Theory classifies different communication media on a
one-dimensional continuum of social presence, which the degree of social presence
equated to the degree of awareness in a communication interaction.
• Face-to-Face Relationship - the participants exchange verbal
communication and share a set of non-verbal cues.
• Computer-Mediated Interactions - social presence is demonstrated by the
messages posted and how those messages are interpreted by others.
Media with Greater Social Presence Media with Lower Social Presence
• Video conferencing • Emails
• Online classes via Google meet • Instant messenger
• Webinar • Google docs

SOCIAL PRESENCE THEORY IN COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION

- In the late 1980s and early 1990s, researchers began to study the effects of
computer-mediated communication (CMC).
Some concluded that:
1. CMC was inherently antisocial and impersonal (Walther, 1996; Walther et.al,
1994).
2. While Hiltz & Turoff (1993) acknowledged that interpersonal relationships might
be
fostered through CMC.
3. CMC was better at task-oriented communication (Walther & Parks, 2002).

SIGNIFICANCE
- Social presence is critical in improving instructional effectiveness in any setting,
particularly in distance learning or education. Modern definition of Social Presence
Theory (SPT) in recent years has been defined as the feeling of community an
individual experiences in an online environment.
 - We have developed multiple non-verbal intimacy behaviors in the online community
that enhance our relationships with people when we communicate in a medium
where there is no real-life contact.

B. Hyper-personal Communication
- It is a phenomenon reported in computer-mediated where friendly one-to-one
interaction with strangers can quickly become personal and intimate. Demonstrates
how individuals communicate uniquely, while representing themselves to others,
how others interpret them, and how the interactions create a reciprocal spiral of FtF
communication.

PIONEERED
- The concept of hyper-personal communication pioneered by Joseph Walther.
- In 1996, Joseph Walther introduced the Hyper-personal Model in his research on
computer-mediated communication (CMC).
- Walther's work has had significant implications for understanding how people form
relationships and communicate in digital environments.

KEY COMPONENTS:
- Sender : refers to "selective self-presentation" message senders have a greater
opportunity to optimize their self-presentation.
- Receivers: -is used to describe people who absorb and comprehend
communications that are extremely individualized to fit their personality
characteristics, interests, or habits.
- Asynchronous channel: refers to a communication method in which messages can
be transmitted and received without the need for simultaneous engagement or
presence from both sides.
- Feedback processes : -relate to the processes that are used to collect, evaluate,
and apply data regarding the results or performance of a system, action, or
communication in order to make changes or improvements.
- Feedback processes are essential for learning, adapting, and improving
continuously in a variety of fields.

KEY MECHANISMS:
- Self-Disclosure ( Increased sharing of personal information.)
- Rich Media ( Use of images and emojis for emotional expression.)
- Tailored Messaging ( Customization for specific audiences.)
- Asynchronous Communication ( Benefits of time-flexible interactions.)
- Privacy control ( Selective sharing and privacy management.)

C. Uses and Gratification Theory

- asserts that people use media to gratify specific needs and wants.
- Active Recipients: Individuals who actively select and use media based on their
specific needs and goals, engaging with content.
- Passive Recipients: Individuals who passively absorb media content without actively
choosing or engaging with it, often influenced by external factors.
- UGT focuses on the media consumer rather than the media itself or the messages
the media conveys.
-
ORIGIN
- Elihu Katz: First introduced the Uses and Gratification Theory, when he came up
with the notion that people use the media to their benefit.
- Jay Blumler: Contributed to UGT by studying how people’s motives for media
consumption (such as seeking information or entertainment) lead to different
patterns of media use.
- Michael Gurevitch:Helped refine UGT by focusing on how media use is driven by
the social and psychological needs of individuals.

KEY CONCEPTS
1. Active Audience
Definition: Media consumers are actively involved in choosing and interpreting
media content.
Key Points:
* Perception is an active process.
* Audiences select media based on their needs and expectations.
2. Social and Psychological Origins
Definition: Media use is influenced by social and psychological factors.
Key Points:
* Audiences use the media as members of social groups.
* Media use satisfies audience needs like information seeking and social education.
3. Strong Motives for Media Use
Definition: Audiences have specific reasons for using media.
Key Points:
* Motives include passing time, diversion, learning, arousal, relaxation,
companionship, and
habit.
4. Expectancy (Potential Gratifications)
Definition: Audiences anticipate specific outcomes from media use.
Key Points:
* Audiences evaluate and rank potential consequences of media consumption.
5. Gratifications
Definition: The satisfaction derived from media use.
Key Points:
* Gratifications sought and obtained may not always align.
* Gratifications are often measured using specific scales.

ELEMENTS/TYPES
- The most recent interest surrounding Uses and Gratifications Theory is the link
between the reason why media is used and the achieved gratification.

WHY PEOPLE USE CERTAIN TYPES OF MEDIA

- Jay Blumler (1972) laid down the kinds of activity the audiences were engaging with
in the different types of media.
Utility : “Using the media to accomplish specific tasks”
Intentionality : “Occurs when people’s prior motive determine use of media”
Selectivity : “Audience members’ use of media reflect their existing interests”
Imperviousness to Influence: “Refers to audience members’ constructing their own
meaning from media content”

WHAT NEEDS PEOPLE HAVE TO USE THEM

- Blumler, McQuail and Brown (1972),
 The four primary factors for which one may use the media:
Diversion: Escape from routine and problems; an emotional release.
Personal Relationships: Social utility of information in conversation; substitution of
media for companionship.
Personal Identity or Individual Psychology: Value reinforcement or reassurance;
self-understanding, reality exploration.
Surveillance: Information about factors which might affect one or will help one do or
accomplish something.

WHAT GRATIFICATION THEY GET FROM USING THEM

- Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) saw mass media as a means by which individuals
connect or disconnect themselves with others.
Cognitive Gratification: Acquiring information, knowledge and understanding
Media Examples: Television (news), video (how-to), movies (documentaries or
based on history)
Affective Gratification: Emotion, pleasure, feelings
Media Examples: Movies, television (soap operas, sitcoms)
Personal Integrative Gratification Credibility, stability, status
Media Examples: Video
Social Integrative Gratification: Family and friends
Media Examples: Internet (e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, social media)
Tension Release Gratification: Escape and diversion
Media Examples: Television, movies, video, radio, internet.

LIMITATIONS OF UGT
- The theory is highly individualistic in nature.
- The theory takes only into consideration personal psychological satisfaction derived
for personal media use. On the other hand, the theory ignores the media’s social
context; for instance, the state, as well as the environment of media user.

D. Text-Based Theory in Communication

- An approach focusing on the text itself in interpreting meaning. It applies to various
forms of text exchange like SMS, email, and instant messaging (Palagin,2022)
ORIGIN
- Text-based theory doesn't have a single discoverer or a definitive date of origin.
Instead, it's a culmination of various intellectual movements and theories that have
evolved over centuries.

EARLY ROOTS
Plato: In his dialogue The Republic, Plato explored the nature of poetry and its
impact on society. Plato was critical of poetry and other forms of artistic expression
because of his belief in mimesis (imitation)
Aristotle: In his work Poetics, Aristotle offered a more positive view of poetry,
arguing that it serves a valuable function in society by providing catharsis (emotional
release) and teaching us about human nature.

WHY IT MATTERS IN CMC?

Online Conversation- When we chat or send messages online, we only have text to
rely on—no facial expressions or tone of voice.
Improving writing skills- As we communicate more online, it's essential to be clear
and precise.
 Adapting different platforms- Different online platforms like Facebook, Twitter, or
email require different writing styles.

1. Lack of Non-verbal Cues - Absence of body language, facial expressions, and

tone makes it difficult to interpret emotions or intentions.
Example: In an email, someone writes, "We need to talk."
Without facial expressions or tone, this could be interpreted as either serious or
casual, leading to anxiety or confusion.
2. Miscommunication - Without tone or context, messages can be easily
misunderstood, leading to confusion or conflict.
Example: A text message saying "Fine." could be read as passive-aggressive or
genuinely fine, depending on the recipient’s interpretation, causing unnecessary
tension.
3. Delayed Feedback - Unlike face-to-face or voice communication, responses may
not be immediate, causing delays in the conversation flow.
Example: In a work email, you ask a colleague for input on a project, but they don’t
reply for several hours or days, slowing down the progress and leaving you
uncertain.
4. Over-reliance on Text - Complex ideas or emotions might be harder to convey
effectively through text alone.
Example: Trying to explain a complex technical issue over chat might take several
messages and still not be fully understood, whereas a quick call could clarify
everything immediately.

BENEFITS
1. Clarity and Precision - Well-crafted written messages allow for clear and
thoughtful communication, reducing ambiguity.
Example: A project manager sends a detailed email with exact deadlines, tasks, and
resources, ensuring everyone is on the same page without ambiguity.

2. Permanent Record - Text-based communication provides a written record that

can be referenced later, useful for documentation or accountability.
Example: An email thread discussing an important business decision can be
revisited weeks later to verify what was agreed upon and avoid misunderstandings.
3. Accessibility - Messages can be exchanged regardless of location or time,
making it easier to communicate across different time zones.
Example: A team member working in a different time zone can read and respond to
messages at their convenience without the need for overlapping schedules.
4. Anonymity - In some cases, text-based interaction allows for more honest and
open communication, as individuals feel less judged.
Example: In an online forum, someone might feel more comfortable sharing
personal struggles or sensitive opinions anonymously, allowing them to speak
openly without fear of judgement.

RELATED THEORIES
- Social Information Processing (SIP) Theory- SIP theory addresses how people form
impressions and develop relationships in computer-mediated communication
(CMC), such as email or instant messaging. The theory suggests that, although
CMC lacks nonverbal cues, users can adapt over time to exchange social
information effectively through text.
- Media Richness Theory is a framework for understanding the effectiveness of
different communication channels based on their ability to convey information.
 According to this theory, the "richness" of a medium refers to its capacity to facilitate
understanding and reduce ambiguity in communication.
- Characteristics of Media Richness A rich medium is one that:
1. Provides immediate feedback: allows for instant interaction and clarification.
2. Conveys Multiple Cues: Includes non-verbal signals such as body language,
facial expressions, tone of voice, etc.
3. Uses Natural Language: Supports the use of a wide range of expressions and
emotional nuances.
4. Has Personal Focus: Allows for a sense of personal connection and engagement.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
1. Email: Ideal for professional communication, formal documentation, project
updates, and customer service.
Example: A manager emails their team the meeting agenda, attaching relevant
documents, and requesting feedback by a specific date.
2. Messaging apps (e.g., WhatsApp, iMessage): Used for quick, informal
communication, coordinating with friends, family, or group events.
Example:
[John]: Can we meet at 3 pm instead of 2 pm tomorrow?
[Rachel]: Sure! Where?
[John]: Coffee shop near the library.
3. Workplace Communication Tools (e.g., Slack, Microsoft Teams): Facilitate
real-time team collaboration through channels, direct messages, and file sharing.
Example (Slack):

👍
[Jane]: @Sam, can you review the new mockups?
[Sam]: Love the new color scheme! Adjust the footer spacing a bit.
4. Social Media (e.g., LinkedIn, Twitter): Used for personal expression, networking,
marketing, and public engagement.
Example (LinkedIn Message):
[Jessica]: Hi Michael, I noticed we both like digital marketing. Open to connecting?
[Michael]: Sure! Let’s chat next week.

AI CHATBOTS AND FUTURE TRENDS

→AI tools and chatbots are revolutionising how text-based communication is
managed, providing faster and more accurate responses.
→Example: Virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa respond to text or voice queries to
answer questions or perform tasks.
→Strength: AI chatbots can handle simple, repetitive tasks, improving customer
service availability.
→Weakness: They struggle with complex emotional or context-sensitive
conversations.

NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING

→Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a branch of AI focused on helping
machines understand and process human language.
Definition:
→ NLP algorithms analyse, interpret, and generate human language, making
communication between humans and machines more natural.
Example:
→Search engines like Google use NLP to interpret search
queries and provide more relevant results.
 →Sentiment analysis tools use NLP to evaluate customer reviews, determining
whether the feedback is positive, negative, or neutral.
Strength:
→ Machines can now understand the context and meaning behind text, not just
keywords.
→Example:
→ A chatbot that understands a user's question, even if it’s phrased differently each
time.
Weakness:
→NLP still struggles with highly ambiguous or colloquial
language.
→Example: Machines may misinterpret cultural slang or
regional expressions.

E. Linguistic Politeness Theory

- ‘Linguistic politeness’ is a term first used by Leech and Brown & Levinson (Park,
2008). It is also referred to as ‘pragmatic politeness (Berger et al., 2001; Park,
2008).
- ➡ It can be defined as the ways in which language is used in conversation to show
consideration for one's interlocutors' feelings and desires, to create and maintain
interpersonal relationships (so-called politic behavior), and to follow the rules for
what society or one's culture considers acceptable behavior (Van Olmen, 2017).

KEY CONCEPTS
A. Face Theory
Relative to linguistic politeness, face is one of the most prominently occurring lexical
elements across language and culture (Watts, 2003; Park, 2008). According to
Goffman, face is a positive social value that can be claimed during a particular social
engagement (Park, 2008). Thus, face can be viewed as "public self-image." Speech
participants maintain and enhance each other’s face through the use of various
verbal and nonverbal expressions and rituals.

There are two aspects of face values that are opposite, but interconnected:
involvement (positive face) and independence (negative face).

1) Positive Face (Involvement) According to Brown and Levinson (Brown &

Levinson, 1987; Park, 2008), the involvement aspect of face concerns: “the positive
consistent self-image or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this
self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants” (p. 61).
2) Negative Face (Independence) Brown and Levinson (1987; Park, 2008 ) termed
the other face value (i.e., independence) as negative-face.
The negative-face concerns “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights
to non-distraction, i.e., to freedom of action and freedom from imposition” (p. 61).
➡ Negative-face desire comes into play when looking at the social distance that is
maintained between speech participants, allowing the hearer to be free from
imposition and preserve personal space and territory.
➡ The most frequently employed politeness strategy for attaining negative-face
desire is the utilization of indirectness, apology, avoidance, and hesitation in varying
degrees.
FACE THREATENING ACT
Face Threatening Act (FTA) - A "face-threatening act" (FTA) is one (linguistic or
non-linguistic) that would make someone possibly lose face, or damage it in some
way. FTAs, which occur regularly in everyday interaction, are often softened by
means of politeness.

LINGUISTIC POLITENESS STRATEGIES

1) Bald-on-record: “Open the window! It’s hot.”
As shown, bald-on-record is direct, concise, clear, and unambiguous. This strategy
does not give much option for the hearer to refuse the speaker. Moreover, the
bald-on-record strategy demonstrates a close, informal, and relaxing interpersonal
relationship between interlocutors. Thus, bald-on-record is frequently observed in
language use between intimates such as close friends and family members.
2) Positive politeness (solidarity): “Jake honey, will you
open the window? Thanks.”
The positive politeness strategy attends to the hearer’s positive-face desire by
demonstrating proximity, friendly attitude, and by claiming common ground between
interlocutors. In the illustration, such solidarity is expressed by using in-group terms
such as a nickname (i.e., Jake), an endearment term (i.e., honey), and
acknowledgement (i.e., thanks), followed by the requestive speech act.
3) Negative politeness (deference): “Jacob, er ... I’m
sorry to bother you, but could you possibly open the
window? It’s awfully hot in here.”
The negative politeness strategy attends to the hearer’s negative-face desire by
avoiding intrusion, maintaining social distance, and by giving the hearer options to
refuse the speaker’s request or suggestion. Frequently, negative politeness is
realized through conventional indirectness, apology, circumlocution, and hesitation,
as in the previous illustration: “Jacob, er... I’m sorry to bother you, but could you
possibly open the window? It’s awfully hot in here.”
4) Off-record: “It’s hot in here.”
The fourth category of Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness strategy is the
so-called off-record tactic. As shown in the illustration (i.e., It’s hot in here), the
off-record strategy is the most indirect speech act in the
sense that the speaker gives full option to the hearer to ignore any speech acts from
the speaker. In other words, the hearer can ignore the speaker’s indirect and vague
request for opening the window by not doing anything. In doing so, the hearer has
freedom from imposition without losing face.

Why linguistic politeness matters in communication

- According to Rash (2013), linguistic politeness is a crucial component
of human communication since it allows people to live in harmony and
peace provided they all follow specific social norms when engaging
with one another in their communities.