Diode

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction
(asymmetric conductance). It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other.

Diode

Various semiconductor diodes. Left:

A four-diode bridge rectifier. Next to it
is a 1N4148 signal diode. On the far
right is a Zener diode. In most diodes,
a white or black painted band
identifies the cathode into which
Close-up view of a silicon diode. The anode is
electrons will flow when the diode is
on the right side; the cathode is on the left side
conducting. Electron flow is the
reverse of conventional current (where it is marked with a black band). The
[1][2][3]
flow. square silicon crystal can be seen between the
two leads.
A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used
type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor Type Passive
material with a p–n junction connected to two
Working principle Flow of electric
electrical terminals.[4] It has an exponential
current in one
current–voltage characteristic. Semiconductor
direction
diodes were the first semiconductor electronic
devices. The discovery of asymmetric electrical Inventor Jagadish Chandra

conduction across the contact between a Bose

crystalline mineral and a metal was made by Invention year 1901

German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. Today,
Number of terminals 2
most diodes are made of silicon, but other
semiconducting materials such as gallium Pin names Anode and cathode
[5]
arsenide and germanium are also used.
Electronic symbol

The obsolete thermionic diode is a vacuum tube

with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a
plate, in which electrons can flow in only one
direction, from the cathode to the plate.
Among many uses, diodes are found in rectifiers to convert alternating current (AC) power to direct
current (DC), demodulation in radio receivers, and can even be used for logic or as temperature
sensors. A common variant of a diode is a light-emitting diode, which is used as electric lighting and
status indicators on electronic devices.

Main functions

Unidirectional current flow

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called
the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Its
hydraulic analogy is a check valve. This unidirectional behavior can convert alternating current (AC)
to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. As rectifiers, diodes can be used for such tasks
as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

Threshold voltage

Forward current–voltage curve of 4

common diodes.

A diode's behavior is often simplified as having a forward threshold voltage or turn-on voltage or cut-
in voltage, above which there is significant current and below which there is almost no current,
which depends on a diode's composition:
Forward threshold voltage for various semiconductor diodes

Diode Type Forward threshold voltage

Silicon Schottky 0.15 V to 0.45 V

Germanium p–n 0.25 V to 0.3 V

Silicon p–n 0.6 V to 0.7 V

Infrared (GaAs) p–n ~1.2 V

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 1.6 V (red) to 4 V (violet). Light-emitting diode physics § Materials has a complete list.

This voltage may loosely be referred to simply as the diode's forward voltage drop or just voltage
drop, since a consequence of the steepness of the exponential is that a diode's voltage drop will not
significantly exceed the threshold voltage under normal forward bias operating conditions.
Datasheets typically quote a typical or maximum forward voltage (VF) for a specified current and
temperature (e.g. 20 mA and 25 °C for LEDs),[6] so the user has a guarantee about when a certain
amount of current will kick in. At higher currents, the forward voltage drop of the diode increases.
For instance, a drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for silicon power diodes. (See also:
Rectifier § Rectifier voltage drop)

However, a semiconductor diode's exponential current–voltage characteristic is really more gradual

than this simple on–off action.[7] Although an exponential function may appear to have a definite
"knee" around this threshold when viewed on a linear scale, the knee is an illusion that depends on
the scale of y-axis representing current. In a semi-log plot (using a logarithmic scale for current and
a linear scale for voltage), the diode's exponential curve instead appears more like a straight line.

Since a diode's forward-voltage drop varies only a little with the current, and is more so a function of
temperature, this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a somewhat imprecise voltage
reference.

Reverse breakdown

A diode's high resistance to current flowing in the reverse direction suddenly drops to a low
resistance when the reverse voltage across the diode reaches a value called the breakdown voltage.
This effect is used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes) or to protect circuits from high voltage surges
(avalanche diodes).
Other functions

A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the

semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during
manufacture.[7] These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many
different functions.[7] For example, to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to
generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce
light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is
useful in microwave and switching circuits.

Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as shot-noise generators.

History

Structure of a vacuum tube diode. The

filament itself may be the cathode, or
more commonly (as shown here)
used to heat a separate metal tube
which serves as the cathode.

Thermionic (vacuum-tube) diodes and solid-state (semiconductor) diodes were developed

separately, at approximately the same time, in the early 1900s, as radio receiver detectors.[8] Until
the 1950s, vacuum diodes were used more frequently in radios because the early point-contact
semiconductor diodes were less stable. In addition, most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for
amplification that could easily have the thermionic diodes included in the tube (for example the
12SQ7 double diode triode), and vacuum-tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers were capable of
handling some high-voltage/high-current rectification tasks better than the semiconductor diodes
(such as selenium rectifiers) that were available at that time.
In 1873, Frederick Guthrie observed that a grounded, white-hot metal ball brought in close proximity
to an electroscope would discharge a positively charged electroscope, but not a negatively charged
electroscope.[9][10] In 1880, Thomas Edison observed unidirectional current between heated and
unheated elements in a bulb, later called Edison effect, and was granted a patent on application of
the phenomenon for use in a DC voltmeter.[11][12] About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming
(scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison
effect could be used as a radio detector. Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the
Fleming valve, in Britain on 16 November 1904[13] (followed by U.S. patent 803,684 (https://patents.
google.com/patent/US803684) in November 1905). Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve
diodes were used in almost all electronics such as radios, televisions, sound systems, and
instrumentation. They slowly lost market share beginning in the late 1940s due to selenium rectifier
technology and then to semiconductor diodes during the 1960s. Today they are still used in a few
high power applications where their ability to withstand transient voltages and their robustness
gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices, and in musical instrument and audiophile
applications.

In 1874, German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" across a
contact between a metal and a mineral.[14][15] Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first
to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894.[16] The crystal detector was developed into a
practical device for wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal
detector in 1903 and received a patent for it on 20 November 1906.[17] Other experimenters tried a
variety of other minerals as detectors. Semiconductor principles were unknown to the developers of
these early rectifiers. During the 1930s understanding of physics advanced and in the mid-1930s
researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized the potential of the crystal detector for
application in microwave technology.[18] Researchers at Bell Labs, Western Electric, MIT, Purdue and
in the UK intensively developed point-contact diodes (crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes) during World
War II for application in radar.[18] After World War II, AT&T used these in its microwave towers that
criss-crossed the United States, and many radar sets use them even in the 21st century. In 1946,
Sylvania began offering the 1N34 crystal diode.[19][20][21] During the early 1950s, junction diodes
were developed.

Etymology

At the time of their invention, asymmetrical conduction devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919,
the year tetrodes were invented, William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from the Greek roots di
(from δί), meaning 'two', and ode (from οδός), meaning 'path'. The word diode however was already
in use, as were triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode, as terms of multiplex telegraphy.[22]
Although all diodes rectify, "rectifier" usually applies to diodes used for power supply, to differentiate
them from diodes intended for small signal circuits.

Vacuum tube diodes

A thermionic diode is a thermionic valve device consisting of a sealed, evacuated glass or metal
envelope containing two electrodes: a cathode and a plate. The cathode is either indirectly heated or
directly heated. If indirect heating is employed, a heater is included in the envelope.

In operation, the cathode is heated to red heat, around 800–1,000 °C (1,470–1,830 °F). A directly
heated cathode is made of tungsten wire and is heated by a current passed through it from an
external voltage source. An indirectly heated cathode is heated by infrared radiation from a nearby
heater that is formed of Nichrome wire and supplied with current provided by an external voltage
source.

A vacuum tube
containing two
power diodes

The operating temperature of the cathode causes it to release electrons into the vacuum, a process
called thermionic emission. The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline earth metals, such as
barium and strontium oxides. These have a low work function, meaning that they more readily emit
electrons than would the uncoated cathode.

The plate, not being heated, does not emit electrons; but is able to absorb them.

The alternating voltage to be rectified is applied between the cathode and the plate. When the plate
voltage is positive with respect to the cathode, the plate electrostatically attracts the electrons from
the cathode, so a current of electrons flows through the tube from cathode to plate. When the plate
voltage is negative with respect to the cathode,
Thermionic diode
no electrons are emitted by the plate, so no
current can pass from the plate to the cathode.

Semiconductor diodes

Close-up of an EFD108
germanium point-contact
diode in DO7 glass package,
showing the sharp metal wire
(cat whisker) that forms the
semiconductor junction.

Point-contact diodes
A high power vacuum diode used in radio
Point-contact diodes were developed starting in equipment as a rectifier.

the 1930s, out of the early crystal detector

Type Vacuum tube
technology, and are now generally used in the 3 to
30 gigahertz range.[18][23][24][25] Point-contact Working principle Thermionic emission

diodes use a small diameter metal wire in contact Inventor John Ambrose
with a semiconductor crystal, and are of either Fleming
non-welded contact type or welded contact type.
Invention year 1904
Non-welded contact construction utilizes the
Schottky barrier principle. The metal side is the Pin names Plate and hot
pointed end of a small diameter wire that is in cathode
[26]
contact with the semiconductor crystal. In the
Electronic symbol
welded contact type, a small P region is formed in
the otherwise N-type crystal around the metal
point during manufacture by momentarily passing
a relatively large current through the device.[27][28]
Point contact diodes generally exhibit lower
capacitance, higher forward resistance and
greater reverse leakage than junction diodes. The symbol for an indirectly heated vacuum
 tube diode. From top to bottom, the element
Junction diodes
names are: plate, cathode, and heater.

p–n junction diode

A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and
gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that
contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the
other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-
type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occurs from the n to
the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This
region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor
holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary
between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place.
When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side
(the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side to the P-
type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction when the
potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve.

Schottky diode

Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction
rather than a p–n junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.[29][30]

Current–voltage characteristic

A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic. The

shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion
layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a
p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse
into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with
which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and
electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and
negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes
depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit.
For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in
the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the P-doped region. As
recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the
depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in"
potential across the depletion zone.

A p–n junction diode in low forward bias mode. The depletion width decreases as voltage increases. Both p
and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V. Observe the
different quasi Fermi levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions (red curves).

Reverse bias

If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the
depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow
(unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light; see
photodiode).

Forward bias

However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can
once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the p–n junction (i.e.
substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction) that increases exponentially
with voltage.
Operating regions

Current–voltage characteristic of a p–n junction

diode showing three regions: breakdown, reverse
biased, forward biased. The exponential's "knee" is at
Vd. The leveling off region which occurs at larger
forward currents is not shown.

A diode's current–voltage characteristic can be approximated by four operating regions. From lower
to higher bias voltages, these are:

Breakdown: At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage (PIV), a process called
reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of
electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p–n junction) that usually damages
the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner. In
the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p–n
junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the
conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known
value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a
limit to the maximum current and power they can withstand in the clamped reverse-voltage
region. Also, following the end of forwarding conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a
short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases.

Reverse biased: For a bias between breakdown and 0 V, the reverse current is very small and
asymptotically approaches -Is. For a normal P–N rectifier diode, the reverse current through the
device is in the micro-ampere (μA) range. However, this is temperature dependent, and at
sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or
more). There is also a tiny surface leakage current caused by electrons simply going around the
diode as though it were an imperfect insulator.
 Semi-log I–V (logarithmic current vs. linear voltage) graph of various diodes.

Forward biased: The current–voltage curve is exponential, approximating the Shockley diode
equation. When plotted using a linear current scale, a smooth "knee" appears, but no clear
threshold voltage is visible on a semi-log graph.

Leveling off: At larger forward currents the current–voltage curve starts to be dominated by the
ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic
to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for
power diodes and can be modeled by a Shockley ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor.

Shockley diode equation

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after the bipolar junction transistor co-
inventor William Bradford Shockley) models the exponential current–voltage (I–V) relationship of
diodes in moderate forward or reverse bias. The article Shockley diode equation provides details.

Small-signal behavior

At forward voltages less than the saturation voltage, the voltage versus current characteristic curve
of most diodes is not a straight line. The current can be approximated by as
explained in the Shockley diode equation article.

In detector and mixer applications, the current can be estimated by a Taylor's series.[31] The odd
terms can be omitted because they produce frequency components that are outside the pass band
of the mixer or detector. Even terms beyond the second derivative usually need not be included
because they are small compared to the second order term.[31] The desired current component is
approximately proportional to the square of the input voltage, so the response is called square law in
this region.[26]: p. 3
Reverse-recovery effect

Following the end of forwarding conduction in a p–n type diode, a reverse current can flow for a
short time. The device does not attain its blocking capability until the mobile charge in the junction
is depleted.

The effect can be significant when switching large currents very quickly.[32] A certain amount of
"reverse recovery time" tr (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be
required to remove the reverse recovery charge Qr from the diode. During this recovery time, the
diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction. This might give rise to a large current in the
reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such a reverse
current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be
in the storage-phase.[33] In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the losses that are
incurred by this non-ideal diode effect.[34] However, when the slew rate of the current is not so
severe (e.g. Line frequency) the effect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is
also negligible for Schottky diodes.

The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is
exploited in step recovery diodes for the generation of extremely short pulses.

Types of semiconductor diode

Current–voltage curves of several types of diodes

Normal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or
germanium. Before the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later
selenium was used. Their low efficiency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied
(typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the peak inverse
voltage rating for application in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an
extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than the later silicon diode of the same
current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS
integrated circuits,[35] which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.

Avalanche diodes
These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the
breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly
called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs
when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization,
reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break
down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the
avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the
channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many
collisions between them on the way through the channel. The only practical difference between
the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.
Constant-current diodes
These are actually JFETs[36] with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal
current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to
rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current
diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.
Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes
These are point-contact diodes.[26] The 1N21 series and others are used in mixer and detector
applications in radar and microwave receivers.[23][24][25] The 1N34A is another example of a
crystal diode.[37]
Gunn diodes
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that
exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form
and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge
carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the
other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors)[38] from the infrared to the near
ultraviolet may be produced.[39] The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes
have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs
are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or combinations of three LEDs of a
different color. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An
LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-
isolator.
Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end
faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for
high speed optical communication.
Thermal diodes
This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature because of their
varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating
and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductors, though they do not have any
rectifying junctions, they use the differing behavior of charge carriers in N and P-type
semiconductor to move heat.
Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired
effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light-blocking material. Photodiodes are
intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass,
and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light).[40] A photodiode can be used in
solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged
in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not
be confused with charge-coupled devices.
PIN diodes
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type
structure.[41] They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as
large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in
power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN
structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs,
and thyristors.
Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed from metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward
voltage drop than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about
1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications
and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their
reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority
carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many
other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also tend to
have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds
and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers,
and detectors.
Super barrier diodes
 Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the
Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–
n junction diode.
Gold-doped diodes
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps the fast
recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at higher signal frequencies,
at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n
diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than
Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes).[42][43] A typical example is the 1N914.
Snap-off or step recovery diodes
The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices.
After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the
reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide
very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
Stabistors or forward reference diodes
The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage
characteristics. These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications
requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature.
Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS)
These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from
high-voltage transients.[44] Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than
those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining
damage.
Tunnel diodes or Esaki diodes
These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling,[45]
allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Because of the high carrier
concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic
fields, and in high radiation environments.[46] Because of these properties, they are often used in
spacecraft.
Varicap or varactor diodes
These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop)
and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television
receivers, to lock quickly on to the frequency. They also enabled tunable oscillators in the early
discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided
the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.
Zener diodes
 These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse
breakdown diodes. This effect called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage,
allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. The term Zener diodes is
colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speaking, Zener diodes have
a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages
above that value. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are
connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of
the diodes to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually
avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same
package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark).

Graphic symbols

The symbol used to represent a particular type of diode in a circuit diagram conveys the general
electrical function to the reader. There are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the
differences are minor. The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e. in the direction
of conventional current flow.

Diode Light-emitting diode Photodiode Schottky diode

(LED)

Transient-voltage- Tunnel diode Varicap Zener diode

suppression diode
(TVS)
 Typical diode
packages in same
alignment as diode
symbol. The thin bar
depicts the cathode.

Numbering and coding schemes

There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes
for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron
standard:

EIA/JEDEC

The standardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC
(Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes have a 1-prefix designation
(e.g., 1N4003). Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal),
1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rectifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power
rectifier).[47][48][49]

JIS

The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with
"1S".

Pro Electron

The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and
comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor
material used for the component (A = germanium and B = silicon) and the second letter represents
the general function of the part (for diodes, A = low-power/signal, B = variable capacitance, X =
multiplier, Y = rectifier and Z = voltage reference); for example:

AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g., AA119)

 BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching diode)

BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g., BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)

BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode)

Other common numbering/coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:

GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9) – this is a very old coding system

OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47) – a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK

company

Related devices

Rectifier

Transistor

Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

TRIAC

DIAC

Varistor

In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the optical isolator, also
known as an optical diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction. It uses a Faraday rotator
as the main component.[50]

Applications

Radio demodulation

A simple envelope demodulator circuit.

The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts.
The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the crystal detector article. In summary, an AM
signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude
or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency
signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted from the
rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which
generates sound waves via audio speaker.

In microwave and millimeter wave technology, beginning in the 1930s, researchers improved and
miniaturized the crystal detector. Point contact diodes (crystal diodes) and Schottky diodes are used
in radar, microwave and millimeter wave detectors.[29]

Power conversion

Schematic of basic AC-to-DC power supply

Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC)
electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode,
which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator or earlier, dynamo.
Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC
voltages.

Reverse-voltage protection

Since most electronic circuits can be damaged when the polarity of their power supply inputs are
reversed, a series diode is sometimes used to protect against such situations. This concept is
known by multiple naming variations that mean the same thing: reverse voltage protection, reverse
polarity protection, and reverse battery protection.

Over-voltage protection

Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic
devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the
voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For
example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-
energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (A diode
used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate
diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive
transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode
types above).

Logic gates

Diode–resistor logic constructs AND and OR logic gates. Functional completeness can be achieved
by adding an active device to provide inversion (as done with diode–transistor logic).

Ionizing radiation detectors

In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic
radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and
single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect
radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volt, s of energy,
generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the
depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly
accurate measurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge
conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer, etc. These semiconductor
radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are
often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer-range (about a centimeter) particles, they need a very
large depletion depth and large area. For short-range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted
semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakdown
(around a thousand volts per centimeter). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of
these detectors sense position as well as energy. They have a finite life, especially when detecting
heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their
ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.

Semiconductor detectors for high-energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of energy
loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

Temperature measurements

A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the
diode depends on temperature, as in a silicon bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal
diode equation given above, it might appear that the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient
(at a constant current), but usually the variation of the reverse saturation current term is more
significant than the variation in the thermal voltage term. Most diodes therefore have a negative
temperature coefficient, typically −2 mV/°C for silicon diodes. The temperature coefficient is
approximately constant for temperatures above about 20 kelvin. Some graphs are given for 1N400x
series,[51] and CY7 cryogenic temperature sensor.[52]

Current steering

Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during
a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An uninterruptible power supply may use
diodes in this way to ensure that the current is only drawn from the battery when necessary.
Likewise, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for
engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally, both are charged from a single alternator, and a
heavy-duty split-charge diode is used to prevent the higher-charge battery (typically the engine
battery) from discharging through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is not running.

Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in
electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard
controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The
problem with matrix circuits is that, when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow
backward through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause "ghost" notes to play. To avoid
triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch
under each key of the musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in
solid-state pinball machines.

Waveform clipper

Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage.
Clamper

This simple diode clamp

will clamp the negative
peaks of the incoming
waveform to the common
rail voltage

A diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive
and negative values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive or the negative peaks
occur at a prescribed level. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it
moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level.

Computing exponentials and logarithms

The diode's exponential current–voltage relationship is exploited to evaluate exponentiation and its
inverse function the logarithm using analog voltage signals (see Operational amplifier applications
§§ Exponential output​and Logarithmic output).

Oscillator

It is possible to modify a regular semiconductor diode like 1N4148 to give it a negative differential
resistance by injection of calibrated current pulses ,the diode being reversely biased near its
avalanche zone .After this treatment the diode associated with an L/C circuit can oscillate , the
frequency set by the L/C circuit .The maximum frequency depends on the diode used .With a
1N4148 oscillation can go up to 100 Mhz (see
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384043395_Another_way_to_create_negative_differential
_resistance_Author )

Abbreviations

Diodes are usually referred to as D for diode on PCBs. Sometimes the abbreviation CR for crystal
rectifier is used.[53]
See also

Active rectification
Electronics portal
Diode-connected transistor

Diode modelling

Fast/ultrafast diode

Flame rectification

Lambda diode

Lr-diode

p–n junction

Small-signal model

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Further reading

Historical circuit books

50 Simple LED Circuits; 1st Ed; R.N. Soar; Babani Press; 62 pages; 1977; ISBN 978-0859340434.
(archive) (https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bookshelf/Author-Groups/Babani/42-Soar-50-Simple-LED-
circuits.pdf)

38 Practical Tested Diode Circuits For the Home Constructor; 1st Ed; Bernard Babani; Krisson
Printing; 48 pages; 1972. (archive) (https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bookshelf/Author-Groups/B
ernards%20Radio%20Manuals/09-38-Practical-Tested-Diode-Circuits.pdf)

Diode Circuits Handbook; 1st Ed; Rufus Turner; Howard Sams & Co; 128 pages; 1963; LCCN 63-
13904. (archive) (https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bookshelf/Author-Groups/Rufus-Turner/Diode-Cir
cuits-Handbook-Rufus-Turner.pdf)

40 Uses for Germanium Diodes; 2nd Ed; Sylvania Electric Products; 47 pages; 1949. (archive) (http://n
4trb.com/AmateurRadio/SemiconductorHistory/40%20Uses%20for%20Germanium%20Diodes.pdf)

Historical periodicals

Rectifier Applications Handbook; On Semiconductor; 270 pages; 2001. (archive) (https://web.archive.or

g/web/20090407093106/http://www.ieeta.pt/~alex/docs/ApplicationNotes/Rectifier%20Applications%20Handbook.
pdf)
 Silicon Rectifier Handbook; 1st Ed; Bob Dale; Motorola; 213 pages; 1966. (archive) (https://archive.org/d
etails/RectifiersSCRsTriacs-MotorolaSiliconRectifierHandbook1966OCR/)

Electronic Rectification; F.G. Spreadbury; D. Van Nostrand Co; 1962.

Zener Diode Handbook; International Rectifier; 96 pages; 1960.

F.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook; 2nd Ed; Federal Telephone and Radio; 80 pages; 1953. (archive) (ht
tps://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bookshelf/Technology/Federal-Selenium-Rectifier-2nd-1953.pdf)

S.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook; 1st Ed; Sarkes Tarzian; 80 pages; 1950. (archive) (https://archive.org/
details/Selenium_Rectifier_Handbook_Sarkes-Tarzian_Company/)

Historical databooks

Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_nationaldaDiscreteSemiconductorProdu

cts_42478563) ; 1989; National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)

Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDataBook_3512275

1) ; 1985; Fairchild (now ON Semiconductor)

Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices5ed_46325378) ;

1982; SGS (now STMicroelectronics)

Semiconductor Databook (https://archive.org/details/1965MotorolaSemiconductorDataManua

l) ; 1965; Motorola (now ON Semiconductor)

External links