RESEARCH METHODS

IN SOCIAL SCIENCES 3
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bilge ŞENYÜZ
Marmara University
Faculty of Communication
Everyday Research Versus Scholarly Research
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research Techniques

Qualitative Quantitative

Speech Interview Survey

Action/Behavior Observation Experiment

Text Discourse Analysis Content Analysis

Examples of Bad and Good Research
Questions
HOW SHOULD I RESEARCH?

■ Theory (Teori/Kuram)
A system of assumptions that have been partially
proven to be true.
(Critical Theory, Liberal Theory, etc.)
■ Methodology (Metodoloji/Yöntem)
The way we prove our theoretical position.
 OWNERSHIP STRUCTURE
Political-Economy of Media

■ Political-economy approach focus on who the capitalist

owners of the media industry are.
■ According to political-economy researchers,
communication and culture industry is under the control
of the ruling class. They focus on the dynamics
underlying the capitalist system according to media.
PRODUCTION PHASE
Media Professionals
■ Survey
■ In-Depth Interview (Semi-Structured, Structured)
■ Focus Group
■ Newsroom Ethnography/Participant Observation
■ Netnography (Media workers' WhatsApp groups,
Facebook groups etc)
 PRODUCTION PHASE: Survey
■ When preparing a survey, the first page should
include the cover, the reason for the survey, its
purpose, the response method, statements that
guarantee confidentiality, analysis information,
and the researcher's contact information.
PRODUCTION PHASE: Survey
 PRODUCTION PHASE: In-depth Interview
■ Researchers who conduct in-depth interviews cannot work with
very large or random sample groups.
■ For this reason, it is not possible to generalize the research
results to other groups not included in the research.
■ Permission is also obtained during in-depth interviews.
■ The researcher should be in an ‘active-passive state’.
■ Interview questions should be created with preliminary
research.
■ A more accurate question is ‘how did you feel there?’ rather
than ‘did you feel good there?’
 PRODUCTION PHASE: Focus Group
■ People from the same social group, the same level of education,
and similar social backgrounds can take part in the focus group.
■ During the focus group process, managers should:
■ Encourage discussion through open-ended questions,
■ From time to time, question participants' views impartially and
gently, leading both that person and others to develop new
ideas about the subject,
■ Stop discussions that go beyond the research topic and try to
focus the discussion on the subject.
 PRODUCTION PHASE: Focus Group
■ It should not give the impression of approving or disapproving
the opinions and ideas expressed by the participants verbally or
non-verbally (such as facial expressions and looks),
■ It should not discriminate between the participants - it should
not create the impression that the opinions of some
participants are more important than others,
■ It should not direct the participants towards certain opinions by
expressing subjective opinions about the topic of discussion.
PRODUCTION PHASE: Newsroom Ethnography/
Participant Observation
❑ Ethnography is the totality of scientific efforts to understand the
culture of a human group. As a qualitative research method,
ethnography aims to understand the person within a cultural
integrity.
❑ Newsroom ethnography emphasizes and examines the change
between the journalistic activities of a person when he/she is
alone and the journalistic activities of a newsroom in a
multimedia environment.
MEDIA CONTENT
Written and Visual

■ Content Analysis – Liberal Theory

■ Discourse Analysis – Cultural Studies
■ Semiotics – Structural Linguistics
■ News Framing – Social Constructionism
■ Rhetorical Analysis – Political communication
■ Psychoanalytic Criticism – Cinema Studies
MEDIA CONTENT
Content Analysis

■ To obtain systematic data about the content of

the texts in line with the research question and to
make repeatable inferences based on this data.
■ Objectivity, systematicity, clear/explicit content
MEDIA CONTENT
Content Analysis
For a content analysis on media coverage of migration and
refugees
Frequency of Specific Terms %%%%%-numbers
■ "Illegal migrant" vs. "asylum seeker" vs. "refugee"
■ "Crisis," "flood," "invasion" (negative metaphors)
■ "Hope," "future," "safety" (positive metaphors)
■ Image Analysis
■ Photos of migrants in distress vs. successful integration
MEDIA CONTENT
Discourse Analysis
■ Discourse analysis is an effort to analyze the subtext of a
text rather than its apparent face, and essentially the
intention of the author of that text. It is to seek the meaning
beyond the word, sentence, and text. It is a qualitative
research method.
■ Criticism: The subjectivity of discourse analysis is
considered a problem, and attention is drawn to the fact
that the analyzer's own text is also open to discourse
analysis, and this creates a cyclical process.
MEDIA CONTENT
Discourse Analysis
■ The approach does not base itself solely on “class” when looking for
the source of power in texts. It goes to a multiple conceptualization of
power that includes race and gender. Moreover, “gender and race” are
problematics that existed before the emergence of the capitalist class.

■ This approach, which uses the discourse analysis method in text

analysis, sheds light on how ideology is represented in media content,
which discourses are dominant and which cannot be seen. Meaning is
established together with the context. Representation is the
construction of meaning through language.
MEDIA CONTENT
Discourse Analysis
Imagine two different news headlines covering the same event:
"Waves of Illegal Migrants Flood the Border"
"Refugees Seek Safety Amid Border Crisis"
Using discourse analysis, we can examine:
■ Word choices: The first headline uses "waves" and "flood", which metaphorically
link migration to a natural disaster, implying chaos and threat. The second uses
"seek safety", emphasizing the humanitarian aspect.
■ Tone and framing: The first headline suggests a security issue, while the second
highlights the refugee crisis.
■ Ideology and power relations: The first aligns with anti-immigration discourse, while
the second aligns with human rights discourse.
MEDIA CONTENT
Semiology
■ In media studies, semiology (or semiotics) is the study of
signs, symbols, and their meanings in media texts and
communication. It explores how meaning is constructed and
understood through images, language, and cultural codes.
■ Visual symbols in advertisements, films, and social media
■ Cultural codes embedded in news and entertainment
■ Narratives and myths that shape public perception
■ It helps reveal hidden meanings, ideologies, and power
structures within media content.
MEDIA CONTENT
Framing Analysis
■ There may be different frames in a
simple news text/advertisement.
■ Media texts may also contain
conflicting frames.
■ Media frames are constructed or
concretized by the keywords,
metaphors, concepts, symbols and
visual materials emphasized in media
narratives.
MEDIA CONTENT
Framing Analysis
We are facing an epidemic. 600 people could die:
If Programme A is implemented, 200 people will survive. If
Programme B is applied, with 1/3 probability 600 people will
survive, with 2/3 probability no one will survive.

If Programme C is implemented, 400 people will die. If

Programme D is applied, with 1/3 probability no one will die,
with 2/3 probability everyone will die.
MEDIA CONTENT
Rhetoric Analysis
It is a widely used method in persuasion and political communication.
■ Ethos (reliability of the source):
A doctor endorsing a particular brand of medication based on their
medical expertise adds credibility to the persuasive message.
■ Pathos (emotional attractions):
For instance, a commercial featuring heartwarming family moments to
promote a product.
■ Logos (rational attractions):
A persuasive essay that relies on data, research findings, and logical
reasoning to support a particular viewpoint.
AUDIENCE-USER RESEARCH

■ Reception Research - Cultural Studies

(dominant reading, negotiated reading, oppositional
reading)
■ Survey
■ In-depth Interview
■ Focus Group
■ Participant Observation / Ethnography / Netnography
NEW METHODS IN NEW MEDIA
New methods
■ Network Mapping
■ Eye Tracking
■ Gamification Research
■ Sentiment Analysis and Time Sequences
 NEW METHODS IN NEW MEDIA

Network Mapping
■ Network analysis starts with the
calculation of central actors. In this
way, information such as different
roles, groupings, clusters, opinion
leaders or bridge actors can be
identified.
 NEW METHODS IN NEW MEDIA
Eye-Tracking
■ The eye tracking method allows us
to get information about where and
how long people focus on a visual
by tracking their eye movements in
front of a visual. The number of
focusing, focusing regions and heat
maps can be determined by
monitoring the eyes of the
participants.
NEW METHODS IN NEW MEDIA
Gamification Research
Gamification research is a research
method that applies game principles,
game mechanics, game features or
game design elements to a non-game
research situation or context.
 NEW METHODS IN NEW MEDIA
Sentiment Analysis
■ This method is used to investigate
and document the temperament of
tweeting activity in any dataset at any
point in time.
■ Sentiment analysis estimates the
emotional content of texts based on
the words used or the presence of
emotion icons.
 HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION

■ Document Review
■ Description Study
■ Oral History
 HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH:
META ANALYSIS
■ If there is a mass of studies on a research topic ,
■ If the characteristics of each study are mentioned in
sufficient detail to be compared with the characteristics of
other studies,
■ If a meta-analysis has not been conducted on the research
of interest,
■ A meta-analysis can be conducted on that research topic.