Chapter 2 Electron Beam and

Lenses
2.1. Electrons
The schematic ways of looking at the structure of a typical isolated atom are presented
in the figure:

Fig. 2.1. Two alternative representations of the first three electron shells around Mo
(molybdenum) atom. The innermost (K shell) electrons are the most tightly bound, and they
would need to be given approximately 20 keV before they could leave atom.

Potential energy of free electron is zero. Energies of localized electrons are negative.
In spectroscopy we also refer to a positive binding energy, or energy of the atom which
is missing localized electron. 1eV=1.6*10-19 J
Electron States.
Table 2.1. The KLM and spdf description of the 16 lowest energy
states together with the number of electrons which each can hold.

Inner shell electrons are the

Possible number
of electrons
lowest energy (highest binding
energy) electrons, nearest to the
nucleus, usually in K or L shell.
These electrons have defined
energies and are localized.

Outer electrons are the highest

energy electrons (lowest binding
energy). These electrons have
defined energies and localized in
the outermost occupied shell.

Conduction band is defined as

shared outer electrons with a
range of possible energies and
delocalized.

3
Free Electron

e = 1.59×10-19 C (coulomb) - charge of the electron;

me = 9×10-31 kg - rest mass of the electron.
If single electron is accelerated through a large potential, V, then its velocity, v, might
approach to the velocity of light, and relativistic effect will become very important.

me
m=
( )
1
(2.1) - relativistic change of mass,
é1 - v ù 2 2

êë c úû where c is velocity of the light in vacuum:

c = 2.998×108 m×s-1

h h
l= = (2.2) - de Broglie’s relationship,
p mv where p is momentum and h is the Planck constant:
h = 6.62× 10-34 J×s

eV = (m - me )c 2 (2.3) - energy, given to the electron, e×V, can be equated

to the energy represented by the relativistic
change of mass
Relativistic correction for the wavelength of the
electron 2 2
h h
l2 = =
(m × v )2 2 × eV × me + e V
2
( c)
2 (2.6)

1.5
l= [nm] when V is in volts (2.7)
V + 10 -6 × V 2
Eq. (2.7) is relativistically corrected Louis de Broglie equation
Table 2.2 Electron wavelength. c = 2.998×108 m×s-1
e = 1.59×10-19 C
me = 9×10-31 kg
h = 6.62× 10-34 J×s

The common approximation (see Chapter

34
1 Louis de Broglie not relativistically
corrected equation) l=(1.5/V) nm doesn’t account for relativistic effect!
1/2
2.2. Electron Sources
The purpose of the electron source is to provide a large, stable current in a small
electron beam. Several types of electron sources are used in electron microscopes.
They are vary in the

• amount of current they can produce,

• the size of the source,
• the stability of the emitted current,
• and the lifetime of the source.

Requirements for the beam of electrons are best met by only two types of sources:

1. thermoionic sources (W filaments or lanthanum hexaboride LaB6);

2. field emission sources (W needles).

Any EM uses a thermoionic source or a field-emission source and those two can
not be interchanged due to correspondingly different design of the EM.
2.2.1. Thermoionic Sources

Thermoionic emission occurs when enough heat

is supplied to the emitter so that electrons can
overcome the work-function energy barrier Ew to
escape from the material. E – represents the
energy (work), which is required for the electron in
the vacuum to escape from the lowest energy
state in the metal. Electrons in metal have a range
of energies. Highest energy state in the metal is
called the Fermi level EF. When the emitter
material is heated to a higher temperature, a
small fraction of electrons at the Fermi level
acquire enough energy to overcome Ew and
escape to the vacuum. Fig. 2.2 Energy model for
electron emission from tungsten
metal with no electric field applied
(adapted from Kittel, 1966)
Electron Current Density of Thermoionic Source
The physics of thermoionic emission can be summarized in Richardson equation that gives
the expression for the cathode current density :

J c = Ac T 2 exp(- E w / kT ) (A/cm2) (2.8)

where:
- Ac is a Richardson’s constant, =120 (A/cm2K2) for thermoionic sources,
- T (K) is absolute emission temperature,
- Ew (eV) is the work function of the filament material and,
- k is Boltzmann’s constant (8.6´10-5 (eV/K)).

A typical values for major thermoionic sources, tungsten and LaB6:

T (K) Ew (eV) Jc
W: 2700 4.5 3.4×104 A/m2
LaB6: 1700 2.4 ~106 A/m2
2.2.2. Field Emission
The strength of an electric field, F, is considerably
increased at a sharp point, r. If we have voltage V
applied to a (spherical) point of radius r then F=V/r *.
At very strong electric field the potential barrier for the
electron becomes narrow and reduced in height by
Schottky effect. Narrow barrier allows electron to
“tunnel” directly through the barrier without
requiring any thermal energy.
In FE source many more electrons can be drawn
from the source than in thermoionic one.
Current density of FE source can be calculated by
Fowler-Nordheim equation:

-6 (E F / Ew )1 / 2 × F 2 æç - 6.8 ×10 9 × Ew3 / 2 ö÷ (A/m2)

J c = 6.2 × 10 expç ÷
(E F - E w ) è F ø
Where: Fig. 2.3 Energy-level diagram for cold field emission
EF is Fermi energy (about 5 eV for W at room temp.); (FE), thermal field emission (TF), and Schottky
Ew is thermoionic work barrier (4.5 eV). emission (SE). Electrons tunnel through the narrow
barriers in the FE and TF cases. For the SE case,
zirconium oxide coating reduces the work function
Regular cathode current, Jc, for FE sources is within so that electrons can escape over the barrier
Jc=109-1010 A/m2 (For a field of about 5´109 V×m-1). (adapted from Tuggle et al., 1985)

W <310> is material of choice.

Can operate at room temperature (cold FE), but * volts per meter is equivalent newtons per coulomb
requires ultra high vacuum (better then 10-9Pa).
2.2.3. The Characteristics of the Electron Beam
The performance of an electron source is described by such terms as brightness, coherency, and
stability.

Only small portion of the electrons escape through anode and pass further down the column as a
beam current, ib. Beam current density is expressed as:

current ib
Jb = =
( 2) 2 (A/m2) (2.10)
area p× d
where ib is the beam current at some point and d is diameter of the beam at this point.

Brightness is defined as the current density per solid angle:

current Jb 4 × ib (A/m2sr) (2.11)

B= = =
(area ) × (solidangle ) p × a 2 p 2 × d 2 × a 2
where a is the aperture angle. Brightness is a constant throughout the electron
column as the individual values of ib, d and a change!

The coherency of a beam of electrons is a way of defining how well the electron waves are “in step”
with one another:
where v is electron velocity,
v×h DE is the energy spread of the beam,
lc = (2.12)
DE and h is Planck’s constant.
 2.2.4.1. Thermoionic Gun
The most common thermoionic electron gun consists of three components (a triode): a
filament, tungsten or LaB6 source, serving as a cathode, the Wehnelt cylinder, and the
anode
if is the filament heating current; it is
used to raise the temperature of emitter
by resistive heating (several amps);

ie is the current in the cross over; it is

if
the emission current (several micro-
amps);

ib is the portion of the electron current

that leaves the gun through the anode;
it is called the beam current, (form
nanoamps to picoamps).
, ie
At each lens and aperture along the
column the beam current becomes
smaller and it is several orders of
magnitude smaller when it is measured
on the specimen as a probe current, ip
(form nanoamps to picoamps).
Fig. 2.4. Schematic diagram of the conventional self-
biased thermoionic (triode) electron gun (adapted from
Hall, 1966)
Saturation of Thermoionic Gun
A constant beam current is required for microscopy and microanalysis since all information
is recorded as a function of time. For stable operation a condition of saturation must be
established in which small variation in the filament heating current, if , do not change
electron beam current, ib.
Saturation might be understood like a result of
operating of a self-regulating negative feedback
circuit to produce a stable beam current.
Suppose that fluctuation in heating current, if,
occurs which produces a momentary increase
in emission. Increased emission current, ie,
flows back through the high voltage supply and
the bias resistor, generating an increased
negative voltage on the grid cup. This slightly
higher bias voltage automatically counters any
further increases in emission. There is no point
of increasing filament heating current more than
required to get saturation conditions on the
Fig. 2.5. Saturation of W hair-pin electron gun.
Operating point is the level of heating current for filament. It doesn’t increase beam current it just
which no further increase in beam current can decrease the lifetime of filament (when we
be obtained. Usually a false peak is observed increase if we also increase temperature of the
even with well-aligned gun. A misaligned gun
exhibits a maximum emission with increased filament increasing its evaporation).
filament heating current.
 Maximum Theoretical Brightness of Thermoionic Gun
Maximum theoretical brightness for thermoionic emitters may be calculated by Langmuir equation:
Jc is current density at the cathode surface;
J × e × V0 V0 accelerating voltage;
Bmax = c (A/cm2×sr) (2.13) e is the charge of electron;
p × kT T absolute temperature;
k is Boltzmann’s constant.
Brightness increases linearly with accelerating voltage.
Substituting of a typical values for the tungsten filament T=2700 K,
Jc=3.4 A/cm2 and V0=20,000 V gives Bmax=9.2×104 A/cm2×sr.

Fig. 2.6. Bias voltage applied on the Wehnelt cylinder is critical for the optimum brightness. At low bias, the negative field in front of the filament is
weak, providing strong emission from the filament and a relatively poor focusing action (a). At a very strong bias, the negative field potential in front
of the filament is so strong that electrons emitted are forced to return to the filament (c). Thus, under high bias conditions (cut-off) emission current
and the brightness decrease to zero. Somewhere in between lays an optimum bias voltage (about 200-400 V), which provides optimum brightness
close to theoretical (b).
Two Types of Thermoionic Guns
W LaB6
A B A

100
µm

C D

B C

Fig. 2.7. (A) The tip of a tungsten hairpin filament Fig. 2.8. An LaB6 cathode (single crystal in
and the distribution of electrons when the filament <110> orientation) and the electron distribution
is (B) undersaturated and misaligned , (C) when the source is (B) undersaturated and
undersaturated and aligned, and saturated. aligned and (C) saturated.
2.2.4.2. Field Emission Electron Guns
• The first anode is positively charged by several kV with
respect to the tip. This is called the “extraction voltage”.
• Second anode applies accelerating voltage (in SEM usually
up to 30kV and TEM 100-300kV) to the electrons.

In vacuum of 10-5 Pa, one monolayer of contaminants will form on

a substrate in about less than a minute. At 10-8 Pa, it will take ~7
hours to form a monolayer. UHV condition is required!

The maximum theoretical brightness of FEG is given

by:
J c × eV0 (A/cm2sr) (2.14)
Bmax =
p × DE

DE is the energy spread of the beam (about 0.3 eV for

cold emission).
Equation (2.14) yields Bmax~2´109 A/cm2sr, which is
102-103 times greater than LaB6 thermoionic gun.

Fig. 2.9. (A) Electron path from FE source showing how a fine crossover is formed by two anodes acting as an
electrostatic lens. Sometimes an extra (gun) lens is added below the second anode. (B) An FEG tip, showing the
extraordinarily fine W needle.
2.2.4.3. Comparison of the Guns
100 µm 100 µm 250 µm

current Jb 4 × ib
B= = =
(area ) × (solidangle ) p × a 2 p 2 × d 2 × a 2
where:
Ib is the beam current,
d is the beam diameter,
α is the aperture angle.
Table 2.3 Brightness is constant alone the column!
A. Tungsten, B. LaB6, C. Tungsten, field
thermoionic thermoionic emission

Table 2.3. Characteristics of the three Principal Sources operating at 100 kV

 2.3. Deflection of Electrons.
Beam of electrons might be focused by electrostatic or magnetic lens. If an electron is moving
with velocity v it experiences a magnetic field strength B (tesla), then it suffers a force which
can be derived by dropping the effect of electrostatic field from general Lorenz eq.
F = q·(E + v ´ B) = - e×(E +v ´ B) Lorentz
v general eq. for electromagnetic field

N N
F = e·(B ´ v) (2.15) in magnetic field only

B = (Br + Bz)
S S
Br F1 v1
1. v F1 = e×(Br ´ v)

v1 F2 v2
2. Bz F2 = e×(Bz ´v1)

So the electron spirals through the lens field with a helical trajectory. This spiral getting tighter and
tighter till the electron crosses the optical axis. The further from the optic axis electron propagates the
stronger field it will be affected. By varying current of the magnetic lens (usually in the range up to
several amps) we can change magnetic field strength, B, and consequently the focal distance.
All magnetic lenses are convergent!
Vector is pointed behind the screen Vector is pointed into the class
Magnetic rotation. Because electrons move inside lens by
spiral with non integer number of the
turns, TEM image is affected by
magnetic rotation. This rotation is rarely
shown on standard ray diagrams. Say,
thin lens equation (1.1) applicable to
the optics with the light, while applied to
the optics with electrons doesn’t
account the magnetic rotation. The
effect of magnetic rotation is seen in
the routine operation of the TEM
because the image, or diffraction
pattern, rotates on the viewing screen
as you try to focus or if you change
Fig.2.11. Image formation with a magnetic lens depicting magnification. This rotation may require
electron rotation about z-axis.
calibration. Newer TEMs have their
magnetic rotation compensated.
Magnetic Rotation (continued)

Object field Image field

#2 u v
Ao
#1 C
F2 Oi
Io
Oo F1 O Ii
D
Thin lens equitation (Newton) Ai
f f
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Io
Ii
Ii j

View from the OF to the IF alone the optic axis in TEM. The tip of vector Io corresponds to the
position of the electron entering the magnetic field of the lens. The tip of vector Ii corresponds
the position of the electron on the exit of the lens
 Electromagnetic Lenses.
Electrons were first successfully focused by using electromagnetic field by Vannevar Bush in 1927
Magnetic lens is made of two parts. First
there is a cylindrically symmetrical core of
soft magnetic material such as soft iron, with
the hole drilled through it. We call this soft
iron a polepiece and the hole is called bore
of polepiece. In the most of lenses there are
two pole pieces (upper and lower), which
can be part of the same lens or may be two
separate pieces. The distance between the
polepiece faces is called the gap and the
bore-to-gap ratio is an important
characteristic of lens, controlling the
Fig. 2.12. Schematic diagram of a magnetic lens.
focusing action of the lens.
The second part of the lens is a coil of copper wire, which surrounds each polepiece. When
we pass direct current through the coil, a constant magnetic field is formed, which
inhomogeneous along the length of the lens, but axially symmetric. The magnetic field is
weakest on axis and increases in strength toward the side of the polepiece, so the electrons
are deflected stronger as they travel off axis, so the spherical aberration can be high.
Resistive heating of the coil means that the lenses have to be cooled by water recirculation
system as a part of the electron microscope lenses.
Different Kinds of Lenses in TEM.
Most lenses act to demagnify the
source image onto the specimen
(all SEM lenses and some TEM)
or they magnify the image or
diffraction pattern.
The objective lens in TEM is the
most important (and complex)
lens, since it forms the image
and diffraction patterns that will
be magnified by the other lenses.
It is also the most difficult to
construct, since the specimen
must be located so close to the
plane of this lens. (to keep f and
Cs smaller). In TEM size of the
gap is usually millimeters.

Fig. A selection of different lenses in TEM: (A) a split pole piece

objective lens (for HRTEM), (B) a top-entry immersion lens (for
HRTEM), (C) a snorkel lens, (D) a quadrupole lens (for
astigmatism correction)

Practical hint: You should be able to get readout (on your TEM consol) of the current through any lens coil and it is
useful thing to know the standard lens current for your common operating modes such as imaging and diffraction.
PREPARATION OF LAB REPORTS

Lab reports are to be prepared and printed in standard report form. The report should be brief, but it
should contain sufficient detail so that you could repeat the experiment on your own in two years. It
must contain the following sections:

1. Abstract: a one to two paragraph summary of the experiment, including the primary results.

2. Introduction: a statement of the problem and technical background: brief review of the theories
behind the experimental procedures or analysis used in the report and objectives of the laboratory.

3. Experimental Procedure: details of the experimental apparatus used, including (but not limited to)
machine name and model and the values of variables which are important for experiment (i.e.,
accelerating voltage of the SEM, imaging signal, working distance, magnification etc.).

4. Results and Discussion: (you may separate this into two sections) present the results of the
experiments, including photographs, drawings, graphs, printouts, etc., and discuss their meaning.
The figures (photos, drawings, etc.) may be attached at the end of the report, but they must have
figure numbers and figure captions.

5. Conclusions: the primary conclusions reached during this experiment.

6. Bibliography: references used, if any.

Specific requirements for each lab report will be discussed at the beginning of the lab.
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What is the color of Swiss cow?

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