ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics

Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions

1. Consider flow from a water reservoir through a circular hole of diameter D at the
side wall at a vertical distance H from the free surface. The flow rate through an
actual hole with a sharp-edged entrance (KL = 0.5) is considerably less than the flow
rate calculated assuming “frictionless” flow and thus zero loss for the hole.
Disregarding the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor, obtain a relation for
the “equivalent diameter” of the sharp-edged hole for use in frictionless flow
relations.

Solution

Water is discharged from a water reservoir through a circular hole of diameter D at

the side wall at a vertical distance H from the free surface. A relation for the
“equivalent diameter” of the sharp-edged hole for use in frictionless flow relations is
to be obtained.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The reservoir is open to the
atmosphere so that the pressure is atmospheric pressure at the free surface. 3 The
effect of the kinetic energy correction factor is disregarded, and thus  = 1.

H
Water D
2

Dequiv < D

Analysis The loss coefficient is KL = 0.5 for the sharp-edged entrance, and KL = 0
for the “frictionless” flow. We take point 1 at the free surface of the reservoir and
point 2 at the exit of the hole, which is also taken to be the reference level (z2 = 0).
Noting that the fluid at both points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 =
Patm) and that the fluid velocity at the free surface is zero (V1 = 0), the energy

Page 1 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
equation for a control volume between these two points (in terms of heads)
simplifies to
P1 V2 P V2 V22
+ α1 1 + z1 + hpum p,u = 2 + α2 2 + z2 + hturbin e,e + hL → H = α2 +h
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g L
V2
where the head loss is expressed as hL = K L . Substituting and solving for V2
2g
gives
V22 V22 2gH 2gH
H = α2 + KL → 2gH = V22 (α2 + K L ) → V2 = =
2g 2g α2 + K L 1+ K L
since 2 = 1. Then the volume flow rate becomes
πD 2 2gH
V = AcV2 = (1)
4 1+ K L

Note that in the special case of KL = 0 (frictionless flow), the velocity relation reduces
to the Toricelli equation, V2,frictionless = 2gH . The flow rate in this case through a hole
of De (equivalent diameter) is
2
πD equi
V = Ac,equivV2,frictionless = 2gH
v
(2)
4
Setting Eqs. (1) and (2) equal to each other gives the desired relation for the
equivalent diameter,
2
πD equi πD 2 2gH
2gH =
v

4 4 1+ K L
which gives
D D
Dequiv = = = 0.904 D
( 1 + K L )1/ 4 ( 1 + 0.5 )1/ 4

Discussion Note that the effect of frictional losses of a sharp-edged entrance is to

reduce the diameter by about 10%. Also, noting that the flow rate is proportional to
the square of the diameter, we have V  D equi
2
v
= (0.904D )2 = 0.82D 2 . Therefore,
the flow rate through a sharp-edged entrance is about 18% less compared to the
frictionless entrance case.

Page 2 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
2. In an air heating system, heated air at 40°C and 105 kPa absolute is distributed
through a 0.2 m × 0.3 m rectangular duct made of commercial steel at a rate of 0.5
m3/s. Determine the pressure drop and head loss through a 40-m-long section of the
duct.

Solution

Air in a heating system is distributed through a rectangular duct made of commercial

steel at a specified rate. The pressure drop and head loss through a section of the
duct are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are
negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The duct
involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 5 The flow section
involves no work devices such as fans or turbines.
Properties The roughness of commercial steel surfaces is  = 0.000045 m. The
dynamic viscosity of air at 40C is  = 1.91810-5 kg/ms, and it is independent of
pressure. The density of air listed in that table is for 1 atm. The density at 105 kPa
and 315 K can be determined from the ideal gas relation to be
P 105 kPa
= = = 1.1683 kg/m3
RT (0.287 kPa  m /kg.K)(40 + 273.15 K)
3

Air duct
Analysis The hydraulic
0.2 m  0.3 m
diameter, average
velocity, and Reynolds
number are
Air L = 40m
4A 4ab 4(0.3 m )(0.20 m )
Dh = c = = = 0.24 m 43C
p 2(a + b) 2(0.3+ 0.20)m 0.5 m3/s

V V 0.5 m3 /s
V= = = = 8.3333 m/s
Ac ab (0.3 m)(0.2 m)
VDh (1.1683 kg/m3 )(8.3333 m/s)(0.24 m)
Re = = = 121,825
 1.918  10−5 kg/m  s
which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness
of the duct is
4.510−5 m
ε /D h = = 1.87510−4
0.24 m
The friction factor can be determined from the Moody chart, but to avoid the
reading error, we determine it from the Colebrook equation using an equation solver
(or an iterative scheme),

Page 3 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
1   / Dh 2.51  1  1.875  10−4 2.51 
= −2.0log  +  → = −2.0log  + 
  121,825 f 
f  3.7 Re f  f  3.7
It gives f = 0.01833. Then the pressure drop in the duct and the head loss become

L V 2 40 m (1.1683 kg/m 3 )(8.3333 m/s) 2  1 N 

P = PL = f = 0.01833   = 123.93 N/m  124 Pa
2

 1 kg  m/s
2
D 2 0.24 m 2 
PL L V2 40 m (8.3333 m/s) 2
hL = = f = 0.01833 = 10.813 m  10.8 m
g D 2g 0.24 m 2(9.81 m/s 2 )

Discussion All final answers are given to three significant digits, but 4 or 5
significant digits are recorded for intermediate steps in order to avoid round-off
error. The required pumping power in this case is
 1W 
W pum p = VΔ P = (0.5 m 3 /s)(124 Pa)  = 62 W
 1 Pa m /s
3

Therefore, 62 W of mechanical power needs to be imparted to the fluid. The shaft

power will be more than this due to fan inefficiency; the electrical power input will
be even more due to motor inefficiency. Also, the friction factor could be
determined easily from the explicit Haaland relation. It would give f = 0.0181, which
is sufficiently close to 0.0183.

Page 4 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
3. Air enters a 10-m-long section of a rectangular duct of cross section 15 cm × 20 cm
made of commercial steel at 1 atm and 35°C at an average velocity of 7 m/s.
Disregarding the entrance effects, determine the fan power needed to overcome the
pressure losses in this section of the duct.

Solution

Air enters a rectangular duct. The fan power needed to overcome the pressure
losses is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are
negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 The duct
involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 5 The flow section
involves no work devices such as fans or turbines

Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and 35C are  = 1.145 kg/m3,  =
1.89510-5 kg/ms, and  = 1.65510-5 m2/s. The roughness of commercial steel
surfaces is  = 0.000045 m (Table 8-2).

10 m

15 cm

Air
20 cm
5 m/s
Analysis The hydraulic diameter, the volume flow rate, and the Reynolds number
in this case are
4 Ac 4ab 4(0.15 m)(0.20 m)
Dh = = = = 0.17143 m
p 2(a + b) 2(0.15 + 0.20) m
V̇ = 𝑉𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉(𝑎 × 𝑏) = (7 m/s)(0.15 × 0.20 m2 ) = 0.21 m3 /s

Page 5 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
VDh (1.145 kg/m3 )(7 m/s)(0.17143 m)
Re = = = 72,506
 1.895  10−5 kg/m  s
which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness
of the pipe is
4.5  10−5 m
 / Dh = = 2.625  10−4
0.17143 m
The friction factor can be determined from the Moody chart, but to avoid the
reading error, we determine it from the Colebrook equation using an equation solver
(or an iterative scheme),
1   / Dh 2.51  1  2.625 10−4 2.51 
= −2.0log  +  → = −2.0log  + 
 3.7  3.7 72,506 f 
f  Re f  f 
It gives f = 0.02036. Then the pressure drop in the duct and the required pumping
power become
𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
Δ𝑃 = Δ𝑃𝐿 = 𝑓 𝐷 =
2
10 m (1.145 kg/m3 )(7 m/s)2 1N 1 Pa
0.02036 0.17143 m (1 kg⋅m/s2 ) (1 N/m2) = 33.32.00 Pa
2
1W
𝑊̇pump = V̇Δ𝑃 = (0.21 m3 /s)(33.32 Pa) ( ) = 6.996 W
1 Pa ⋅ 𝑚3 /s
Discussion The friction factor could also be determined easily from the explicit
Haaland relation. It would give f = 0.02008, which is reasonably close to 0.02037.
Also, the power input determined is the mechanical power that needs to be
imparted to the fluid. The shaft power will be much more than this due to fan
inefficiency; the electrical power input will be even more due to motor inefficiency.

Page 6 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
4. A horizontal pipe has an abrupt expansion from D1 = 5 cm to D2 = 10 cm. The
water velocity in the smaller section is 8 m/s and the flow is turbulent. The pressure
in the smaller section is P1 = 410 kPa. Taking the kinetic energy correction factor to
be 1.06 at both the inlet and the outlet, determine the downstream pressure P2, and
estimate the error that would have occurred if Bernoulli’s equation had been used.

Solution

A horizontal water pipe has an abrupt expansion. The water velocity and pressure in
the smaller diameter pipe are given. The pressure after the expansion and the error
that would have occurred if the Bernoulli Equation had been used are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady, horizontal, and incompressible. 2 The flow at
both the inlet and the outlet is fully developed and turbulent with kinetic energy
corrections factors of 1 = 2 = 1.06 (given).
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000 kg/m3.
2

1
Water 5 cm 10 cm

8 m/s
410 kPa
Analysis Noting that  = const. (incompressible flow), the downstream velocity
of water is

A1 πD12 /4 D12 (0.05 m )2

m 1 = m 2 → ρV1A1 = ρV2 A2 → V2 = V1 = V1 = 2 V1 = (8 m /s)= 2 m /s
A2 πD 22 /4 D2 (0.10 m )2
The loss coefficient for sudden expansion and the head loss can be calculated from
2 2
 A   D 2   0.052 
2

K L = 1− sm all  = 1− 12  = 1− 2 

= 0.5625
 A   D 2   0.
10 
 large 
2 2
V (8 m /s)
hL = K L 1 = (0.5625) = 1.835 m
2g 2(9.81 m /s2 )

Page 7 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
Noting that z1 = z2 and there are no pumps or turbines involved, the energy equation
for the expansion section can be expressed in terms of heads as
P1 V2 P V2 P1 V2 P V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hpum p,u = 2 + α2 2 + z2 + hturbine,e + hL → + α1 1 = 2 + α2 2 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g

Solving for P2 and substituting,

 α V 2 − α2V22 
P2 = P1 + ρ  1 1 − ghL 
 2 
1.06(8 m /s)2 − 1.06(2 m /s)2  1 kN  1 kPa 
= (410 kPa)+ (1000 kg/m 3 ) − (9.81 m /s2 )(1.835 m )   2 
 2   1000 kg  m /s  1 kN /m 
= 423.8 kPa  424 kPa

Therefore, despite the head (and pressure) loss, the pressure increases from 410 kPa
to 424 kPa after the expansion. This is due to the conversion of dynamic pressure to
static pressure when the velocity is decreased.
When the head loss is disregarded, the downstream pressure is determined
from the Bernoulli equation to be
P1 V12 P V2 P1 V12 P2 V22 V 2 − V22
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 → + = + → P1 = P1 + ρ 1
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g 2

Substituting,

(8 m /s)2 − (2 m /s)2  1 kN   1 kPa 

P2 = (410 kPa)+ (1000 kg/m 3 )   2 
= 440 kPa
2  1000 kg m /s  1 kN /m 
Therefore, the error in the Bernoulli equation is
Error = P2, Bernoulli – P2 = 440 – 423.8 = 16.2 kPa
Note that the use of the Bernoulli equation results in an error of (440 – 423.8) /
423.8 = 0.038 or 3.8%.

Discussion It is common knowledge that higher pressure upstream is necessary to

cause flow, and it may come as a surprise that the downstream pressure has
increased after the abrupt expansion, despite the loss. This is because the sum of the
three Bernoulli terms which comprise the total head, consisting of pressure head,
velocity head, and elevation head, namely [P/g + ½V2/g+ z], drives the flow. With a
geometric flow expansion, initially higher velocity head is converted to downstream
pressure head, and this increase outweighs the non-convertible and non-recoverable
head loss term.

Page 8 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
5. A water tank filled with solar-heated water at 40°C is to be used for showers in a
field using gravity-driven flow. The system includes 35 m of 1.5-cm-diameter
galvanized iron piping with four miter bends (90°) without vanes and a wide-open
globe valve. If water is to flow at a rate of 1.2 L/s through the shower head,
determine how high the water level in the tank must be from the exit level of the
shower. Disregard the losses at the entrance and at the shower head, and neglect
the effect of the kinetic energy correction factor.

Solution

A solar heated water tank is to be used for showers using gravity driven flow. For a
specified flow rate, the elevation of the water level in the tank relative to
showerhead is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are
negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed. 3 The flow is turbulent so that the
tabulated value of the loss coefficients can be used (to be verified). 4 The elevation
difference between the free surface of water in the tank and the shower head
remains constant. 5 There are no pumps or turbines in the piping system. 6 The
losses at the entrance and at the showerhead are said to be negligible. 7 The water
tank is open to the atmosphere. 8 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factor is
negligible,  = 1.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 40C are  = 992.1 kg/m3
and  = 0.65310-3 kg/ms, respectively. The loss coefficient is KL = 0.5 for a sharp-
edged entrance. The roughness of galvanized iron pipe is  = 0.00015 m.
Analysis The piping system involves 20 m of 1.5-cm diameter piping, an entrance
with negligible loss, 4 miter bends (90) without vanes (KL = 1.1 each), and a wide
open globe valve (KL = 10). We choose point 1 at the free surface of water in the
tank, and point 2 at the shower exit, which is also taken to be the reference level (z2
= 0). The fluid at both points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm),
and V1 = 0. Then the energy equation for a control volume between these two points
simplifies to
P1 V12 P2 V22 V22
+α + z + hpum p,u = +α + z + hturbine,e + hL → z1 = α2 +h
ρg 1 2g 1 ρg 2 2g 2 2g L
 L  V22
where hL = hL,total = hL,m ajor + hL,m inor =  f +  K L 
 D  2g 1
since the diameter of the piping
system is constant.
Water tank

1.5 z1

35 m 1.2

Showers 2
Page 9 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions

The average velocity in the pipe and the Reynolds number are
V V 0.0012 m 3 /s
V2 = = = = 6.791 m /s
Ac πD 2 /4 π(0.015 m )2 /4
ρV D (992.1 kg/m 3 )(6.791 m /s)(0.015 m )
Re = 2 = = 154,750
μ 0.65310−3 kg/m  s
which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness
of the pipe is
0.00015 m
ε /D = = 0.01
0.015 m
The friction factor can be determined from the Moody chart, but to avoid the
reading error, we determine it from the Colebrook equation using an equation solver
(or an iterative scheme),
1  ε /D 2.51  1  0.01 2.51 
= −2.0log +  → = −2.0log + 
f  3.7 Re f  f  3.7 154,750 f 
   

It gives f = 0.03829. The sum of the loss coefficients is

 K L = K L,entrance + 4K L,elbow + K L,valve + K L,exit = 0 + 41.1+ 10 + 0 = 14.4
Note that we do not consider the exit loss unless the exit velocity is dissipated within
the system considered (in this case it is not). Then the total head loss and the
elevation of the source become

 L  V22  35 m  (6.791 m /s)2

hL =  f +  K L  =  (0.03829) + 14.4 2
= 243.9 m
 D  2g  0.015 m  2(9.81 m /s )
V22 (6.791 m /s)2
z1 = α2 + hL = (1) + 243.9 m = 246 m
2g 2(9.81 m /s2 )
since 2 = 1. Therefore, the free surface of the tank must be 246 m above the
shower exit to ensure water flow at the specified rate.

Discussion We neglected the minor loss associated with the shower head. In
reality, this loss is most likely significant.

Page 10 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions

6. Water at 15°C is to be discharged from a reservoir at a rate of 18 L/s using two

horizontal cast iron pipes connected in series and a pump between them. The first
pipe is 20 m long and has a 6-cm diameter, while the second pipe is 35 m long and
has a 3-cm diameter. The water level in the reservoir is 30 m above the centerline of
the pipe. The pipe entrance is sharp-edged, and losses associated with the con-
nection of the pump are negligible. Neglecting the effect of the kinetic energy
correction factor, determine the required pumping head and the minimum pumping
power to maintain the indicated flow rate.

Solution

Water is drained from a large reservoir through two pipes connected in series at a
specified rate using a pump. The required pumping head and the minimum pumping
power are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The pipes are horizontal. 3
The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed. 4 The flow is
turbulent so that the tabulated value of the loss coefficients can be used. 5 The pipes
involve no components such as bends, valves, and other connectors that cause
additional minor losses. 6 The reservoir is open to the atmosphere so that the
pressure is atmospheric pressure at the free surface. 7 The water level in the
reservoir remains constant. 8 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factor is
negligible,  = 1.

Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 15C are  = 999.1 kg/m3
and  = 1.13810-3 kg/ms. The loss coefficient is KL = 0.5 for a sharp-edged
entrance. The roughness of cast iron pipes is  = 0.00026 m.

Water tank 30 m 10 L/s

2

35 m
20 m Pump
Page 11 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions

Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 and the
reference level at the centerline of the pipe (z2 = 0). Noting that the fluid at both
points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the fluid velocity
at the free surface of the tank is very low (V1  0), the energy equation for a control
volume between these two points (in terms of heads) simplifies to
P1 V2 P V2 V22
+ α1 1 + z1 + hpum p,u = 2 + α2 2 + z2 + hturbine,e + hL → z1 + hpum p,u = α2 +h
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g L

where 2 = 1 and
 L V2
hL = hL,total = hL,m ajor + hL,m inor =   f D +  K L  2g
 

and the summation is over two pipes. Noting that the two pipes are connected in
series and thus the flow rate through each of them is the same, the head loss for
each pipe is determined as follows (we designate the first pipe by 1 and the second
one by 2):

Pipe 1:
V V
0.018 m 3 /s
V1 = = = = 6.366 m /s
Ac1 πD12 /4 π(0.06 m )2 /4
ρV1D1 (999.1 kg/m 3 )(6.366 m /s)(0.06 m )
Re1 = = = 335,300
μ 1.13810−3 kg/m  s
which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness
of the pipe is
0.00026 m
ε /D1 = = 0.00433
0.06 m
The friction factor corresponding to this relative roughness and the Reynolds
number is, from the Colebrook equation,
1  ε /D 2.51  1  0.00433 2.51 
= −2.0log 1
+  → = −2.0log + 
f1  3.7 Re f  f  3.7 335, 300 f 
 1 1  1  1 

It gives f1 = 0.02941. The only minor loss is the entrance loss, which is KL = 0.5. Then
the total head loss of the first pipe becomes
 L V2  20 m  (6.366 m /s)2
hL1 =  f1 1 +  K L  1 =  (0.02941) + 0.5 2
= 21.3 m
 D1  2g  0.06 m  2(9.81 m /s )
V V 0.01 8m 3 /s
Pipe 2: V2 = = = = 25.46 m /s
Ac2 πD 22 /4 π(0.03 m )2 /4

Page 12 of 13
ENM3218/ENS6100 Fluid Mechanics
Tutorials 8 & 9 Solutions
ρV2D 2 (999.1 kg/m 3 )(25.46 m /s)(0.03 m )
Re2 = = = 670,700
μ 1.13810−3 kg/m  s

which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness
of the pipe is
0.00026 m
ε /D 2 = = 0.008667
0.03 m
The friction factor corresponding to this relative roughness and the Reynolds
number is, from the Colebrook equation,
1  ε /D 2.51  1  0.008667 2.51 
= −2.0log 2
+  → = −2.0log + 
f2  3.7 Re f  f  3.7 670,700 f 
 2 2  2  2 

It gives f2 = 0.03623. The second pipe involves no minor losses. Note that we do not
consider the exit loss unless the exit velocity is dissipated within the system
considered (in this case it is not). Then the head loss for the second pipe becomes
L2 V22 35 m (25.46 m /s)2
hL 2 = f2 = (0.03623) = 1396.5 m
D 2 2g 0.03 m 2(9.81 m /s2 )
The total head loss for two pipes connected in series is the sum of the head losses of
the two pipes,
hL = hL,total = hL1 + hL2 = 21.3+ 1396.5 = 1417.8 m

Then the pumping head and the minimum pumping power required (the pumping
power in the absence of any inefficiencies of the pump and the motor, which is
equivalent to the useful pumping power) become
V22 (25.46 m /s)2
hpum p,u = α2 + h − z = (1) + 1417.8 − 30 = 1420.9 m
2g L 1 2(9.81 m /s2 )
W pum p,u = V Δ P = ρV ghpum p,u
 1 kN   1 kW 
= (999.1 kg/m 3 )(0.018 m 3 /s)(9.81 m /s2 )(1420.9 m ) 2  
 1000 kg m /s   1 kN  m /s
= 251 kW
Therefore, the pump must supply a minimum of 251 kW of useful mechanical energy
to water.

Discussion Note that the shaft power of the pump must be greater than this to
account for the pump inefficiency, and the electrical power supplied must be even
greater to account for the motor inefficiency.

Page 13 of 13