Q1 (a) Discuss benefits and disadvantages of irrigation.

Benefits of Irrigation:

1. Increases Crop Yield – Provides sufficient water to crops, improving growth and
productivity.

2. Ensures Food Security – Helps in growing crops even in areas with low rainfall.

3. Multiple Crops Per Year – Enables farmers to cultivate more than one crop in a year.

4. Reduces Dependency on Rainfall – Farmers don’t have to rely solely on natural

precipitation.

5. Enhances Soil Fertility – Proper irrigation helps maintain soil moisture and fertility.

Disadvantages of Irrigation:

1. Waterlogging – Over-irrigation can lead to water stagnation, damaging crops.

2. Salinization – Excessive irrigation in dry areas can increase soil salinity.

3. High Cost – Infrastructure development for irrigation is expensive.

4. Environmental Issues – Leads to depletion of groundwater levels and affects aquatic life.

5. Soil Erosion – Improper irrigation can wash away topsoil, reducing soil quality.

Q1 (b) “All the waters are not fit for irrigating crops.” Discuss briefly and critically.

Not all water is suitable for irrigation due to factors like:

1. Salinity & Alkalinity – High salt concentration can damage plant roots and soil fertility.

2. Presence of Toxic Elements – Industrial or sewage water may contain heavy metals,
harming crops.

3. pH Imbalance – Extremely acidic or alkaline water affects soil nutrient absorption.

4. Sediment Load – High turbidity water can clog irrigation equipment.

5. Bacterial Contamination – Water from untreated sewage can carry pathogens harmful
to plants and humans.

Thus, it is essential to analyze water quality before using it for irrigation.

Q1 (c) Explain with neat sketch following water distribution techniques in farms:

(i) Free Flooding:

• Water is released into the field without any controlled channel, leading to uneven
distribution.

• Suitable for flat lands but leads to water wastage.

(Sketch should depict a plain field with excess water flow.)

(ii) Border Flooding:

• The field is divided into strips separated by ridges, and water flows in controlled
sections.

• More efficient than free flooding.

(Sketch should show rectangular sections with water distributed evenly.)

Q2 (a) Discuss on ‘Efficient water management is a challenge in India’.

Challenges in Water Management:

1. Overexploitation of Groundwater – Excessive extraction depletes water levels.

2. Unequal Distribution – Some regions have surplus water while others face droughts.

3. Poor Irrigation Practices – Traditional methods lead to wastage.

4. Climate Change – Unpredictable rainfall affects water availability.

5. Industrial & Domestic Pollution – Contaminates fresh water sources.

6. Lack of Water Recycling – Low reuse of wastewater increases scarcity.

Solutions include rainwater harvesting, micro-irrigation (drip & sprinkler), and better water
policies.

Q2 (b) Draw a neat sketch showing layout of sprinkler irrigation system and explain function
of each component.

Components & Their Functions:

1. Pump – Draws water from the source and provides pressure.

2. Pipes (Main & Lateral) – Distribute water to different areas.

 3. Sprinkler Heads – Spray water in a fine mist for even distribution.

4. Control Valves – Regulate water flow.

5. Filters – Remove debris to prevent clogging.

(Sketch should depict a pump connected to a main pipe with sprinklers distributing water in a
circular pattern.)

Q2 (c) Explain application of artificial intelligence in irrigation and drainage.

AI Applications in Irrigation & Drainage:

1. Smart Irrigation Systems – AI-based sensors analyze soil moisture and adjust water
supply.

2. Weather Prediction – AI helps forecast rainfall, optimizing irrigation schedules.

3. Drought Management – Machine learning models predict drought conditions and water
demand.

4. Automated Drainage Control – AI can regulate drainage channels to prevent

waterlogging.

5. Crop Monitoring – AI-powered drones analyze plant health and suggest optimal
irrigation.

AI improves efficiency, conserves water, and enhances crop yield.

Q3 (b) Explain the following terms:

(i) Field Capacity:

The maximum amount of water soil can hold after excess water drains away.

(ii) Permanent Wilting Point:

The moisture level at which plants can no longer extract water and start wilting.

(iii) Available Water:

The difference between field capacity and wilting point, representing usable water for plants.

(iv) Maximum Allowable Deficiency (MAD):

The limit beyond which irrigation is needed to prevent crop stress.

Q4 (a) Explain the following soil-water terms:

(i) Gravitational Water:

Excess water that drains due to gravity after irrigation.

(ii) Capillary Water:

Water held in soil pores, available for plant roots.

(iii) Hygroscopic Water:

Thin water layer bound to soil particles, unavailable for plants.

Q4 (c) List factors for reference evapotranspiration using Penman method.

1. Solar Radiation

2. Temperature

3. Wind Speed

4. Humidity

5. Atmospheric Pressure

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Q1 (a) Define irrigation and explain its necessity in a tropical country like India. What are
the advantages of irrigation?
Definition of Irrigation:

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil for assisting crop growth, especially in areas
with insufficient rainfall.
Necessity of Irrigation in India:

1. Uneven Rainfall – Some regions receive excessive rainfall, while others suffer droughts.

2. Seasonal Rainfall – Monsoons are seasonal, leading to water scarcity in dry months.

3. Increasing Food Demand – Population growth requires higher agricultural output.

4. Enhancing Crop Yield – Proper irrigation ensures stable and high productivity.
 5. Supporting Cash Crops – Many cash crops (sugarcane, cotton) need continuous water
supply.

Advantages of Irrigation:

1. Boosts Agricultural Productivity – Ensures optimal crop growth.

2. Allows Multiple Crops Per Year – Enables double or triple cropping.

3. Improves Soil Fertility – Prevents soil degradation.

4. Supports Industries – Supplies water to agri-based industries.

5. Aids in Afforestation – Helps in growing forests in arid regions.

Q1 (b) Explain the following water distribution techniques in farms:

(i) Furrow Irrigation:

• Water flows through narrow channels (furrows) between crop rows.

• Reduces water wastage compared to flooding methods.

(Sketch: Parallel furrows with water flowing between crop rows.)

(ii) Check Flooding:

• Field is divided into small basins using ridges, and water is released in a controlled
manner.

• Prevents excessive runoff.

(Sketch: Small check basins filled with water.)

(iii) Basin Flooding:

• Entire field is covered with a layer of water.

• Common for rice cultivation.
(Sketch: Large field with standing water.)

Q1 (c) Define:

(i) Gross Command Area:

• The total area that can be irrigated by a water source, including both cultivated and
uncultivated land.
(ii) Cultivable Command Area:
 • The portion of the Gross Command Area that is suitable for cultivation.

(iii) Intensity of Irrigation:

• The ratio of the irrigated area to the total cultivable area, expressed as a percentage.

Intensity of Irrigation=(Irrigated areaTotal cultivable area)×100\text{Intensity of Irrigation} =

\left(\frac{\text{Irrigated area}}{\text{Total cultivable area}}\right) \times
100Intensity of Irrigation=(Total cultivable areaIrrigated area)×100

Q2 (a) Explain Pipe Distribution Network (PDN) with a neat sketch.

• PDN consists of a main pipeline supplying water to multiple smaller lateral pipes.
• Helps in controlled and efficient water distribution.
(Sketch should show a main pipeline branching into lateral pipes with outlets at each
crop row.)

Q2 (b) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of sprinkler irrigation.

Advantages:

1. Water Conservation – Uses less water than flood irrigation.

2. Uniform Distribution – Sprays water evenly across the field.

3. Suitable for Different Terrains – Works well on slopes and uneven land.

4. Reduces Soil Erosion – No excessive water runoff.

5. Less Labor-Intensive – Automated systems require less workforce.

Disadvantages:
1. High Initial Cost – Requires expensive pumps, pipes, and sprinklers.

2. Wind Interference – Strong winds affect water distribution.

3. Water Loss – Evaporation losses are higher.

4. Clogging Issues – Nozzles may get blocked by sediments.

Q2 (c) Explain factors affecting the choice of irrigation methods.

1. Soil Type – Sandy soils need drip irrigation; clay soils work well with basin irrigation.
 2. Topography – Steep slopes need sprinkler or drip irrigation.

3. Water Availability – Scarce water requires efficient methods like drip irrigation.

4. Crop Type – Rice needs flooding, whereas orchards benefit from drip irrigation.

5. Climate Conditions – Hot, windy areas lose more water to evaporation.

6. Cost & Infrastructure – Budget constraints affect method selection.

Q3 (b) Explain direct method of evapotranspiration measurement using lysimeter.

• A lysimeter is a device used to measure actual evapotranspiration by analyzing soil

moisture loss in a controlled soil column.

• Steps:
1. A container with soil and plants is placed in the field.

2. Water input and output are monitored.

3. Evapotranspiration is calculated from weight loss.

Q3 (c) Discuss the significance of soil structure in irrigation engineering.

• Water Holding Capacity – Well-structured soil retains moisture efficiently.

• Drainage – Good soil structure prevents waterlogging.

• Aeration – Porous soil allows better root respiration.

• Erosion Resistance – Stable soil resists displacement.

Q4 (a) Explain step-by-step procedure for estimating reference crop evapotranspiration

using FAO Penman-Monteith equation.

1. Measure Climatic Parameters:

o Temperature, humidity, wind speed, radiation.

2. Determine Net Radiation:

o Compute incoming & outgoing radiation.

3. Calculate Aerodynamic & Canopy Resistance:

o Influences water loss.

4. Apply the FAO Equation:
o Use standard formula to compute ETo.