UNIT 1: Introduction to Databases – The Foundation
This unit introduces the core concepts of databases and their role in business, laying the
groundwork for understanding different database models and management systems.
• Define Databases:
o A comprehensive definition of a database as an organized collection of structured
data designed for efficient storage, retrieval, and management.
o Explaining the importance of databases in managing large volumes of data and
supporting various business applications.
• RDBMS and Their Role in Business:
o Defining Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS) as a type of DBMS
that organizes data into tables with relationships defined between them.
o Discussing the pivotal role of RDBMS in business operations, including data
storage, transaction processing, reporting, and decision-making.
o Exploring popular RDBMS software like MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, and
PostgreSQL.
• Data Models (Hierarchical, Network, Relational):
o Hierarchical Model: Explaining the hierarchical data model, which organizes data
in a tree-like structure with parent-child relationships.
o Network Model: Discussing the network data model, which allows more complex
relationships between data elements than the hierarchical model.
o Relational Model: Focusing on the relational data model, which is the most
widely used model today, emphasizing its simplicity, flexibility, and data integrity.
• Advantages and Disadvantages of RDBMS:
o Analyzing the advantages of RDBMS, such as data integrity, data consistency, data
independence, and ease of use.
o Discussing the potential disadvantages of RDBMS, such as performance overhead
for complex queries and the need for careful database design.
• Database Administrator (DBA) Functions & Role:
o Defining the role of a Database Administrator (DBA) as the person responsible for
managing and maintaining the database system.
o Exploring the various functions of a DBA, including database design, installation,
configuration, performance tuning, security management, and backup/recovery.
• Data Dictionary:
o Explaining the concept of a data dictionary as a centralized repository of
metadata (data about data) that describes the structure of the database.
o Discussing the importance of a data dictionary in ensuring data consistency,
facilitating database management, and supporting application development.
UNIT 2: Entity-Relationship Modeling – Conceptual Design
This unit focuses on the process of creating a conceptual database design using the Entity-
Relationship (ER) model.
• Entity-Relationship Model as a Tool of Conceptual Design:
o Emphasizing the ER model as a powerful tool for representing the data
requirements of a system at a conceptual level, independent of any specific
DBMS.
• Entities & Entity Set:
o Defining an entity as a real-world object or concept that is relevant to the
database, such as a customer, product, or order.
o Explaining an entity set as a collection of similar entities.
• Relationship & Relationship Set:
o Defining a relationship as an association between entities, such as a customer
placing an order.
o Explaining a relationship set as a collection of similar relationships.
• Attributes:
o Defining attributes as properties or characteristics of entities, such as customer
name, product price, or order date.
• Mapping Constraints:
o Explaining mapping constraints, also known as cardinality constraints, which
specify the number of entities that can participate in a relationship (e.g., one-to-
one, one-to-many, many-to-many).
• Keys:
o Defining keys as attributes or combinations of attributes that uniquely identify
entities within an entity set.
o Discussing different types of keys, such as primary keys, foreign keys, and
candidate keys.
• Entity-Relationship Diagram (E-R Diagram):
o Explaining the E-R diagram as a graphical representation of the ER model, using
symbols to represent entities, relationships, and attributes.
• Notations Used in ER Diagram:
o Describing the standard notations used in ER diagrams, such as rectangles for
entities, diamonds for relationships, and ovals for attributes.
• Strong & Weak Entities:
o Differentiating between strong entities, which have their own primary key, and
weak entities, which depend on another entity for their existence.
• Generalization, Specialization, Aggregation:
o Generalization: Explaining generalization as the process of creating a higher-level
entity type from lower-level entity types (e.g., creating a "Person" entity from
"Employee" and "Customer" entities).
o Specialization: Discussing specialization as the process of creating lower-level
entity types from a higher-level entity type (e.g., creating "Employee" and
"Customer" entities from a "Person" entity).
o Aggregation: Explaining aggregation as the process of treating a relationship as
an entity.
UNIT 3: Introduction to SQL – Data Manipulation
This unit introduces the Structured Query Language (SQL), the standard language for interacting
with relational databases.
• Basic SQL Queries to Retrieve and Manipulate Data:
o Introducing the fundamental SQL commands for retrieving data (SELECT),
inserting data (INSERT), updating data (UPDATE), and deleting data (DELETE).
o Demonstrating how to write basic SQL queries using these commands.
• Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands:
o Explaining DDL commands, which are used to define and modify the structure of
the database, such as CREATE TABLE, ALTER TABLE, and DROP TABLE.
• Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands:
o Discussing DML commands, which are used to manipulate the data stored in the
database, such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
• Data Control Language (DCL) Commands:
o Explaining DCL commands, which are used to control access to the database and
manage user permissions, such as GRANT and REVOKE.
• Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands:
o Discussing TCL commands, which are used to manage transactions, such as
COMMIT and ROLLBACK.
UNIT 4: Advanced SQL & JOIN Operations – Complex Queries
This unit builds upon the basic SQL skills, introducing more advanced concepts and techniques
for querying and manipulating data.
• Complex SQL Queries to Retrieve and Manipulate Data:
o Demonstrating how to write complex SQL queries using subqueries, nested
queries, and set operations.
• Introduction to Functions and Expressions:
o Explaining the use of SQL functions and expressions to perform calculations,
manipulate strings, and format data.
• GROUP BY, ORDER BY, and HAVING Clauses:
o Discussing the GROUP BY clause for grouping rows based on specified columns,
the ORDER BY clause for sorting rows, and the HAVING clause for filtering
grouped rows.
• Introduction to JOIN Operations (INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN):
o Explaining the concept of JOIN operations, which are used to combine rows from
two or more tables based on related columns.
o Differentiating between INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, and RIGHT JOIN and their
applications.
UNIT 5: Data Security & Integrity – Protecting Data
This unit focuses on the critical aspects of data security and integrity, ensuring the reliability and
confidentiality of the database.
• Basics of Normalization (1NF, 2NF, 3NF):
o Explaining the concept of database normalization, which is the process of
organizing data to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity.
o Discussing the first three normal forms (1NF, 2NF, 3NF) and their rules.
• Importance of Data Security and Integrity in Business Databases:
o Emphasizing the importance of data security and integrity in protecting sensitive
business information and ensuring accurate decision-making.
• User Access Control and Permissions:
o Discussing the techniques for controlling user access to the database and
managing user permissions.
• Data Backup and Recovery Techniques:
o Explaining the importance of data backup and recovery in preventing data loss
and ensuring business continuity.
o Discussing various backup and recovery techniques.
• Introduction to Database Security Threats:
o Identifying common database security threats, such as unauthorized access, SQL
injection, and data breaches.
o Discussing strategies for mitigating these threats.
