POWER GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION

EEE 420
STABILITY
 STABILITY
Power system stability may be broadly defined
as that property of a power system that enables
it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium
under normal operating conditions and to regain
an acceptable state of equilibrium after being
subjected to a disturbance.
Stability studies are conducted when planning
for

 new generation
 transmitting facilities
 IMPORTANCE OF STABILITY STUDIES

The studies are helpful in determining such

things as
1. the nature of the relaying system required
2. critical clearing time of circuit breakers
3. voltage level of systems
4. transfer capability between systems
 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM
STABILITY PROBLEMS

1. Rotor Angle Stability

 Steady State (Small Signal) Stability
 Transient Stability

2. Voltage Stability
 Rotor Angle Stability
• Rotor angle stability is the ability of
interconnected synchronous machines of a
power system to remain in synchronism.
• A power system in steady state has frequency
and machine rotor angle with respect to a
synchronous rotating axis.
 Rotor Angle Stability
• Since power systems rely on synchronous
machines for generation of electrical power, a
necessary condition for satisfactory operation
is that all synchronous machines remain in
synchronism.
• This aspect of stability is influenced by the
dynamics of generator rotor angles and
power-angle relationships.
 Rotor Angle Stability
• Instability may also be encountered without loss of
synchronism.
• For example, a system consisting of synchronous
generator feeding an induction motor load through a
transmission line can become unstable because of the
collapse of load voltage.
• Maintenance of synchronism is not an issue in this
instance;
instead, the concern is stability and control of voltage.
 Steady State Stability
Steady state (small-disturbance) stability is the
ability of a power system to maintain
synchronism when subjected to small
disturbances as occur continually in normal
operation due to small variations in consumption
and generation.
• Steady state stability

Instability may be of two forms

 Steady increase in rotor angle due to the lack
of sufficient synchronizing torque.
 Rotor oscillations of increasing amplitude
due to lack of sufficient damping torque.
• Steady state stability

In steady state stability problem, we are basically

concerned with the determination of upper limits of
machine loadings under condition of gradual
changes in load.
 Swing Equation
The motion of the rotor of a synchronous generator is
described by the equation

d θm
2
J 2 = Ti − Te (1)
dt
where
J is rotor moment of inertia
Ti is shaft torque developed by turbine
Te is electromagnetic torque developed by synchronous
machine
Θm is angular displacement of rotor in mechanical radians
From equation (1), Swing equation can be derived
as
2H d δ 2
= Pi − Pe (2)
ω 0 dt 2

where
Pi is shaft input power in per unit
Pe is electromagnetic power in per unit
δ is the load angle, power angle, torque angle or
internal angle.
H is inertia constant defined as the stored kinetic energy at
synchronous speed in MJ or MW-sec per unit MVA of
machine rating.

Jω 0
H = × 10 6 MJ (3)
2 Pr MVA

Pr = rating of mechanice in MVA

ω 0 = mechanical or rotor synchronous speed in radians
 Power Transfer
Consider a single synchronous machine
connected to an infinite bus through an external
impedance or reactance
V∠0o
E∠δ Ze = Re + jX e I
R

Infinite bus
Synchronous
machine
The complex power injected into the infinite
bus(or the complex power at its receiving end) if
R = 0 is given by

S R = V∠0 × I R
*
(4)

The complex power injected is

VE sin δ
PR = (5)
Xe
 Steady State Stability Limit
The steady state stability limit of the simplest electrical
system is defined as the greatest possible power at its
receiving end under a given condition of operation and
excitation in the presence of small disturbances.

E∠δ V∠0o
Xd Xe

The electromagnetic power is given as

(6)
EV
Pe = sin δ
Xd + Xe
Suppose a small disturbance causes the rotor
angle to vary by ∆δ
Thus, changes from δ 0 to (δ 0 + ∆δ )

where subscript ‘0’ denotes steady state

condition.
Then from electromagnetic power equation

 ∂Pe 
∆Pe =   ∆δ = c∆δ (7)
 ∂δ  0
Suppose that Pi is constant because the governor
is slow to act compared to the speed of energy
dynamics.
Substituting equation (7) into the equation (2)-
swing equation, we obtain
(8)
 2H  d (δ 0 + ∆δ)
2
  = Pi − (Pe 0 + ∆Pe )
 ω0 
2
dt
2H d 2 ∆δ
(9)
= − ∆Pe for Pe 0 = Pi
ω 0 dt 2

d 2 ∆δ 2H (10)
M 2 = −C∆δ where M =
dt ω0
 d 2 ∆δ
M 2
+ C∆δ = 0
dt

The characteristic equation is

Mp + C = 0
2

C
and its roots are
p=± −
M (11)

Natural frequency of oscillations = p/ 2π

 Case 1
If C > 0, the roots are pure imaginary and any
small disturbance appearing in the system will
result in continuous oscillations.
Line resistance and damper windings of
machines ignored in the analysis cause the
system oscillations to decay. The system is
therefore stable for a small disturbance so long
as ∂P
 e
  >0
 ∂δ  0
 Case 2
If C < 0, both roots are real and one of them is
positive. In this case, any small disturbance
results in a periodic rise of the torque angle, and
synchronism is soon lost.
Thus the system is unstable if

 ∂Pe 
  <0
 ∂δ  0
 EV
At δ 0 = 90 , C = X cos δ 0 = 0
o

The angle δ 0 = 90 o therefore determines the steady

state stability limit Pm
Thus, EV EV
Pm = sin 90 =
o

X X (11)
 Example 1
For the system where X d = 1.20p.u., V = 1.0p.u., X e = 0.60p.u., E = 1.20p.u.
• H = 4 MW − sec MVA and the system frequency
calculate the frequency of natural oscillations if the
generator is loaded to (a) 50% and (b) 80% of its
maximum power limit.
 Solution
(a) For 50% loading
Pe 0
sin δ 0 = = 0.5 ⇒ δ 0 = 30 o
Pm
EV 1.2 × 1
C= cos δ 0 = cos 30 o = 0.577 pu / electrical rad
X 1.8

2H 2H 2× 4
M= = = = 0.0255p.u. / electrical rad
ω0 2πf 0 2 × π × 50

C 0.577
p=± − =±j = ± j 4.757
M 0.0255
Natural frequency of oscillations = 4.757rad / sec = 4.757 = 0.757Hz
2π
 Cont’d
(b) For 80% loading
Pe 0
sin δ 0 = = 0.8 ⇒ δ 0 = 53.1o
Pm
1.2 × 1
C= cos 53.1o = 0.4pu / electrical rad
1.8
M = 0.0255p.u. / electrical rad

C 0.4
p=± − = ±j = ± j3.961
M 0.0255

3.961
Natural frequency of oscillations = 3.961rad / sec = = 0.637 Hz
2π
 Example 2
For the system shown in the figure below,
calculate the limit of steady state power with
and without reactor switch closed.

X t = 0.1 pu X L = 0.25 pu X t = 0.1 pu

M
X dg = 1 pu X mg = 1 pu
Eg = 1.2 pu Em = 1.0 pu
X c = 1 pu
 Solution
(a) Reactor switch is open
Total reactance between generator and motor
X = X dg + X t + X L + X t + X mg
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.25 + 0.1 + 1 = 2.45 p .u .
Therefore,
EgEm 1.2 × 1
Pm = = = 0.49p.u.
X 2.45
 Cont’d
(b) Reactor switch is closed.
The equivalent circuit is as follows

a j1 pu j 0.1 pu j 0.25 pu j 0.1 pu j1 pu

b

− j1 pu M E = 1.0 pu
Eg = 1.2 pu m

c
This can be reduced to (by star-to-delta conversion)
X

M E = 1.0 pu
Eg = 1.2 pu m
 Cont’d
Xa Xb
This gives X = Xa + Xb +
Xc

Where X a = j(1 + 0.1 + 0.25) = j1.35

X b = j(1 + 0.1) = j1.1
X c = − j1
X = j1.35 + j1.1 +
( j1.35)( j1.1) = j2.45 − j1.485 = j0.965p.u.
Therefore − j1

1.2 × 1
Steady state power limit, Pm = = 1.244 p .u .
0.965
Transient Stability
 TRANSIENT STABILITY

• The ability the power system to maintain

synchronism when subjected to a severe
disturbance
 Examples of Major Disturbance
• the tripping of a heavily loaded line
• short-circuit,
• the tripping of a loaded generator and
• sudden drop of a large load

NB: A system which is transiently stable may

recover to its original frequency or settle down
to a new frequency.
 Critical Clearing Time
• It is defined as the maximum time that is
allowed to remove the disturbance without
interrupting performance of the system.
• The system will be stable if the disturbance
can be cleared before the time allowed.
 Critical Clearing Time
• Knowledge of the critical clearing time helps
system planner to coordinate the relay system
so that a given fault is cleared in time.
• A fault cleared before the critical clearing time
will result in a stable system and a fault
cleared after the critical clearing time will
result in the loss of synchronism.
 Critical Clearing Angle
• The critical clearing angle is defined as the
maximum change in the load angle curve
before clearing the fault without loss of
synchronism.
• The angle at which the fault becomes cleared
and the system becomes stable is called
critical clearing angle.
Equal Area Criteria
 TRY
Show that the critical clearing angle is given by

−𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝒎𝒎 (𝜹𝜹𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 −𝜹𝜹𝒐𝒐 )

• 𝜹𝜹𝒄𝒄 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 + 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜹𝜹𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑷𝑷𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

Show that the critical clearing time is also given

𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒(𝜹𝜹𝐜𝐜 −𝜹𝜹𝟎𝟎 )
by 𝒕𝒕𝒄𝒄 =
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒎𝒎
 From figure 2, given that,
the generated emf , 𝐸𝐸 = 1.2 < 750 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝;
no-load voltage, 𝑉𝑉 = 1 < 00 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝;
internal reactance, 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
Calculate the
power generated when it is cleared fault
[Ans: 1.16 pu]
the maximum power generated when it is cleared fault
[Ans:1.2 pu]
power generated in the fault condition
[Ans: 0]