BACTERIA

What are Bacteria?

“Bacteria are the basic plant unit, being the simplest form of plants. They are classified under
plants because their structure and method of food intake. They take soluble food. Each cell
is independent organism and capable of carrying out all the necessary function of life. They
found in air, water and soil.”

3.1 Distribution:
 Bacteria are found everywhere in nature, in water, in soil and in air.
 For the bacteria, must have aqueous environment to obtain food.
 In air, associated largely with particulate materials.
 In soil, all types of bacteria present which are capable of degradation of organic
matter.
 Bacteria are distributed in nature accordingly to the presence of nutrient materials
used as food.

3.2 Shape & Size:

 Depending on their shape, bacteria are classified into several varieties:
1. Cocci are spherical or oval cells.
2. Bacilli are rod shaped cells.
3. Vibrios are comma shaped curved rods and derive the name from their
characteristic vibrant motility.
4. Spirilla are rigid spiral forms.
5. Spirochetes are flexuous spiral forms.
6. Actinomycetes are branching filamentous bacteria.
7. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that are cell wall deficient and hence do not possess a
stable morphology.
 For size, very wide limit. Its size changes with time during growth and death. The limit
of cell size ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 micron. For common bacteria, it is 0.5 to 3 micron.

The average rods - 0.5 to 1 

The wide rods - 1.5 to 3 
The average spheres - 0.5 to 1 
The average spiral - 0.5 to 5 
The wide spiral - 0.6 to 15 

3.3 Forms:
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 Pleomorphism: Some species of bacteria exhibit great variation in the shape and
size of individual cells. This is known as Pleomorphism.
 Involution: certain species (For example, plague bacillus, gonococcus) show
swollen and aberrant forms in aging culture, especially in the presence of high salt
concentration. These are known as involution forms.
 Many of the cells may be nonviable.
 Pleomorphism and involution forms are often due to defective cell wall synthesis
 Involutions forms may also develop due to the activity of autolytic enzymes.
 L forms: kleineberger- Nobel, studying cultures of Streptobacillus moniliformis,
observed swollen cells and other aberrant morphological forms and named them L
forms.
 L forms are developing either spontaneously or in the presence of penicillin or other
agent that interfere with cell wall synthesis.
 L forms may be unstable in that the morphological abnormality is maintained only in
the presence of penicillin or other inducing agent, or stable, when the aberrant form
becomes the permanent feature of the strain and is retained in serial subcultures.

3.3 Cell Structure (Bacterial Anatomy):

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 Slime layer and capsule:

 Many bacteria secrete a viscid material around the cell surface. When this
is organised into a sharply defined structure known as the capsule.
 When it is loose undemarcated secretions it is called the slime layer.
 Capsule too thin to be seen under light microscope are called
microcapsules.
 The slime is generally in polysaccharides (e.g. pneumococcus) and
polypeptide (e.g. anthrax bacillus) in nature.
 Some bacteria have both the capsule and slime layer (e.g. Streptococcus
salivarius).
 Not visible by gram stained smear.
 Capsule may be demonstrated by negative staining in wet films, when they
are seen as clear halos around the bacteria, against black background.
 Capsules protect bacteria from the deleterious agents.
 Capsules are contributes to the virulence of pathogenic bacteria by
inhibiting phagocytosis.

 Pili or Fimbriae:

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 Some gram –ve bacilli carry very fine, hair-like surface appendages called
Fimbriae or Pili.
 Size: 0.5 μm long and less than 10 nm thick.
 Project from the cell surface as straight filaments.
 Originate in cell membrane.
 Can be seen only under electron microscope.
 Fimbriae function as organ of adhesion, helping the cell to adhere firmly to
particles of various kinds.
 Fimbriae are antigenic in nature.
 Sex pili are longer and fewer in number than other bacteria. Found on
‘male’ bacteria and help in the attachment of those cells to ‘female’
bacteria, forming hollow conjugation tubes through which genetic material
transferred from the donor to the recipient cell.
 Cell Wall:
 The cell wall accounts for the shape of the bacterial cell and confers on it
rigidity and ductility.
 Cannot be seen by direct light microscopy and does not stain with simple
stains.
 It may be demonstrated by plasmolysis.
 When placed in a hypertonic solution, the cytoplasm loses water by
osmosis and shrinks, while the cell wall retains its original shape and size.
 Demonstrated by microdissection, reaction with specific antibody,
mechanical rupture of cell, differential staining procedures e.g. Gention
violet or saffranine, or by electron microscopy.
 Bacterial cell wall is 10-25 nm thick and account for about 20-30 per cent of
the dry weight of the cells.
 Cell wall is composed of mucopeptide (peptidoglycan and murein).
 The walls of Gram positive bacteria have simpler chemical nature than
those of Gram negative bacteria.
 Cell wall carries bacterial antigens that are important in virulence and
immunity.

 Cytoplasmic membrane or cell membrane:

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 The cytoplasmic or plasma membrane is a thin (5-10 nm) layer lining the
inner surface of the cell wall and separating it from the cytoplasm.
 It contains lipo protein with small amount of carbohydrate.
 It acts as a semipermeable membrane, controlling inflow and outflow of
metabolites to and from the protoplasm.
 It is the site of the surface charge of the bacteria.
 Cytoplasm:
 The mass of bacteria cell is made up of a colloidal suspension of proteins,
lipids and carbohydrates is known as cytoplasm.
 Most of the chemical reaction occurs in the cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm contains ribosomes, mesosomes, inclusions and nucleus.
 Ribosomes:
 Are centres of protein synthesis
 Smaller than the ribosomes of eukaryotic cell.
 Integrated in linear strands of mRNA to form polysomes.
 Mesosomes:
 It is also known as chondroids.
 They are vesicular, convoluted or multilaminated structures formed as
invaginations of the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm.
 More prominent in gram positive bacteria.
 Principal site of respiratory enzymes in bacteria.
 Mesosomes are often seen in relation to the nuclear body and the site
synthesis of cross wall septa, suggesting that they coordinate nuclear and
cytoplasmic division during binary fission.
 Intracytoplasmic inclusions:
 It is different from cell to cell and varies with Environment limits
 The more common are volutin, polysaccharide, lipid and crystals.
 Volutin granules (metachromatic granules) are highly refractive, strongly
basophilic bodies consisting of polymetaphosphate.
 They appear reddish when stained with polychrome methylene blue or
toluidine blue. E.g. Albert’s or Nisser’s staining.

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 Characteristically present in diphtheria bacilli.
 Function is to represent a reserve of energy and phosphate for cell
metabolisms.
 Help cell to grown under nutritional deficiency and tend to disappear when
the deficient nutrients are supplied.
 Vacuoles are fluid-containing cavities separated from the cytoplasm by
membrane.
 Nitrogen, carbohydrates and fatty acid are also present.
 Nucleus:
 The heart of the bacteria is the nucleus.
 It is demonstrated by acid or ribonuclease hydrolysis. May be seen by
electron microscopy.
 It is composed of nucleo proteins and is responsible for all chemical
reactions, which occurs within the cell.
 They appear as oval or elongated bodies, generally one per cell.
 Bacterial nuclei have no nuclear membrane or nucleolus.
 The nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is not associated with basic
protein.
 Enzymes, which catalyse all biological reactions within the cell, have their
origin in the nucleus
 As long as the nucleus remains intact, the cell can continue to function, as
it still retains the ability to repair damage and create new cellular
components
 Flagella:
 Motile bacteria posses one or more unbranched, long, sinous
filaments called flagella.
 This is the organ of locomotion and swimming.
 Flagellum consists the filament, the hook, and the Basel body.
 The flagella are 3-20 μm long and 0.02 μm thick and are uniform in
diameter 0.001 -0.013 μm.
 Flagella are made up of protein.

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 Flagella of different genera of bacteria have same chemical
composition but they are antigenetically different.
 Flagella arrangement are (1) All round the cell (2) one or both ends of
the cell (3) tuft of the flagella at one pole and (4) tuft of the flagella at
both pole.
 Endospore:

 A number of gram positive bacteria can form a special resistant,

dormant structure called an endospore.
 Resistant to environmental stresses such as heat, ultraviolet
radiations, gamma radiations, chemical disinfectant, and desiccation.
 Can be examined both light and electron microscope.
 The spore often is surrounded by a thin, delicate covering called
exosporium.
 The spore coat lies beneath the exosporium, is composed of several
protein layers and may be fairly thick. It is permeable to many toxic
molecules and responsible for spore’s resistant to chemicals.
 The cortex, which may occupy as much as half of the spore volume,
rests beneath the spore coat. It osmotically remove water from
protoplast and protecting from heat and radiation

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 The spore cell wall or core wall is inside the cortex and surrounds the
protoplast or core.
 Core has the normal cell structure such as ribosomes and nucleoid,
but it is metabolically inactive.
 15 % of the spore’s dry weight consists of dipicolinic acid complex
with calcium ions, which make spore more resistant.
3.4 Chemical composition:
 Gram positive cell walls:
 Thick, homogeneous cell wall composed primarily of peptidoglycan.
 Also contains large amount of teichoic acids, polymers of glycerol or ribitol
joined by phosphate group.
 Amino acids such as D-alenine or sugars like glucose are attached to the
glycerol or ribitol groups.
 The teichoic acids are connected to either the peptidoglycan itself by
covalent bond with the six hydroxyl of N-acetylmuramic acid or to plasma
membrane lipids so later they are called as lipoteichoic acid.
 Teichoic acid help to maintaining a structure of the wall.
 Layer of proteins on the surface of the cell wall are involved in the
interactions of the cell with its environment.
 Gram negative cell walls:
 The lipopolysaccharides present in gram negative cell wall bacteria.
 its account for endotoxic activity and O antigen specificity.
 Glycolipid (lipid A) is responsible for the endotoxic activity like pyrogenisity,
lethal effects, tissue necrosis.
 Outer membrane proteins (OMP) present in outer membrane of Gram
negative cell wall.
 Porins which form transmembrane pores that serves as diffusion channel
for small molecules.
 Aromatic and sulphur containing amino acid present in gram negative cell
wall.

3.4 Metabolisms:
 Metabolisms is the sum total of all chemical reaction occurring in the cell.

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 It can be divided into catabolism and anabolisms.
 In catabolism molecule reduced in complexity and made available free
energy.
 Energy also can be derived from sunlight (Photosynthesis) and the oxidation
of inorganic nutrients.
 Anabolism involves the use of free energy to increase the complexity of
molecules.
 During catabolism , nutrients are funnelled into few common pathways for
more efficient use of enzymes
 The tricarboxylic acid cycle is the final pathways for the aerobic oxidation of
nutrient to CO2.
 Energy released in catabolism is generated by the movement of the electron
from electron transport carrier with more negative reduction potentials to more
positive reduction potential.
 Aerobic respiration is much more efficient than the anaerobic catabolism.
 A wide Varity of electron acceptor can be used in catabolism; endogenous
organic molecules (fermentation), O2 (aerobic respiration), and oxidized
exogenous inorganic and organic molecules other than O2 (anaerobic
respiration).
 Reduced inorganic as well as organic molecules serve as electron donors for
electron transport and ATP synthesis.
 In photosynthesis trapped light energy boosts electron to more negative
reduction potential or higher energy levels. These energized electrons are
then used to make ATP and NADPH or NADH during electron transport.
 proton motive force is generated by oxidative reduction and photosynthesis , it
is used to power the production of ATP and other process such as transport
and bacterial motility.

3.4 Classification of Bacteria:

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 Classification means the orderly arrangement of units under study into groups
of larger units.
 Classification of living organisms placed all organisms into two kingdoms,
plant and animal.
 1866 E.H.Haeckel suggested third kingdom, Protistsa, be formed to include
those unicellular microorganisms that are typically neither plants nor animals.
 Protists include bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa.
 Bacteria are lower protists. Fungi, algae, and protozoa are higher protists.
 Kingdome are divided successively into division, class, order, family, tribe,
genus and species.

 Whittaker’s Five- Kingdom Concept:

 This is proposed by R. H. Whittaker (1969)

 This is based on three level of cellular organization which evolved to
accommodate three principal modes of nutrition: Photosynthesis, absorption
and ingestion.

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 The prokaryotes are included in the kingdom Monera; they lack the ingestive
mode of nutrition.
 Unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms are placed in the kingdom Protista.
 Eukaryotic multicellular, photosynthesize nonmotile sexual organism found in
kingdom Plantae.
 Eukaryotic multicellular, ingest motile sexual organisms found in the
kingdoms Animalia.
 Eukaryotic multicellular, absorb nonmotile sexual organisms found in the
kingdoms Fungi.
 The purpose of classification of microorganisms is to define the pathogenic
potential. For example, a Staphylococcus aureus isolated from blood is more
likely to be acting as a pathogen than Staphylococcus epidermidis from the
same site.
 Some bacteria have the capacity to spread widely in the community and
cause serious disease, for example Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Vibrio
cholera.
 Bacteria are identified using a series of physical immunological or molecular
characteristics.
 Gram reaction: Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria respond to
different antibiotics. Other bacteria (e.g. mycobacteria) may require special
staining techniques.
 Cell shape (cocci, bacilli or spirals).
 Endospore: presence, shape and position in the bacterial cell (terminal,
subterminal or central).
 Atmospheric preference: aerobic organisms require oxygen; anaerobic ones
require an atmosphere with very little or no oxygen. Organisms that grow in
either atmosphere are known as facultative anaerobes. Microaerophiles prefer
a reduced oxygen tension; capnophiles prefer increased carbon dioxide.
 Fastidiousness: requirement for special media or intracellular growth.
 Key enzymes: for example, lack of lactose fermentation helps identify
salmonellae, urease helps identify Helicobacter.
 Serological reactions: interaction of antibodies with surface structures (e.g.
subtypes of salmonellae, Haemophilus and many others)

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 DNA sequences: 16S ribosomal DNA sequences are now a key element in
classification.

 Scientific Classification of Bacteria Based on Bergy's Manual”

Kingdom
Classification of
Procaryotae
Medically Important Bacterial Group Bacteria by Shape and
Division II -
Function
Bacteria
These are aquatic
bacteria that can produce
Part 1 Phototrophic bacteria carbohydrates from CO2
with the help of
photosynthetic pigments.
These are rods that can
move by gliding in a layer
Part 2 Gliding bacteria of slime. These bacteria
have many form complex
fruiting bodies.
These are rods that are
surrounded by a sheath
of iron or manganese
Part 3 Sheathed bacteria
oxides. Some of these
rods have flagella for
movement.
This is diverse group of
rods that can reproduce
Part 4 Budding and/or appendaged bacteria
by forming buds or
appendages.
These are slender,
helically-coiled bacteria
Part 5 Spirochetes
that move by rotation or
flexion of the cell.
These are helically-
curved rods that can
Part 6 Spiral and curved bacteria
move with a cork-screw-
like motion.
These are rods and
Part 7 Gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci spheres that are aerobic
Gram negative bacteria.
Part 8 Gram-negative facultatively anaerobic rods These are rods that are
Gram negative and can
survive in the absence of
oxygen

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These are rods that are
Part 9 Gram-negative anaerobic rods strictly anaerobic Gram-
negative organisms.
These are spheres that
Part 10 Gram-negative cocci and - coccobacilli are Gram negative
bacteria.
These are spheres that
are strictly anaerobic
Part 11 Gram-negative anaerobic cocci
Gram-negative
organisms.
These bacteria use
nitrogen, sulfur, and iron
Part 12 Chemolithotrophic bacteria compounds for their
energy and structural
components.
These are rods and
spheres that obtain
Part 13 Methane-producing bacteria. energy from carbohy-
drates forming methane
as an end product.
These are spheres
Part 14 Gram-positive cocci facultative Gram positive
organisms
These are rods and
spheres that can form
Part 15 Endospore-forming rods and cocci
endospores during their
life cycles.
The rod shaped bacteria
that do not form spores
Part 16 Gram-positive as porogenous rods
and that give a Gram
positive porogenous rods.
This a very large group of
Part 17 Actinomycetes and related organisms aerobic and anaerobic
rods.
These are small rod-
shaped bacteria that are
transmitted by
Part 18 The rickettsias arthropods. They can
multiply only within a host
cell that also includes
chlamydiae.
These are very small,
Part 19 The mycoplasmas multi-shaped bacteria that
lack a a true cell wall

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 Classification of Bacteria Flowchart
 The classification of bacteria is incomplete for a microbiologist till they
cannot place each and every bacteria in their specific groups.
 The following is a classification of bacteria flowchart that contains
names of most of the bacterial species under the specific groups
according to their Gram reaction and specific group.
 Classification of Bacteria of Medical Importance that give Gram
Positive Reaction: This classification was carried out in 1984 and
places the cocci, endospore-forming and nonsporing rods,
mycobacteria, nonfilamentous actinomycetes under this group.
 Classification of Bacteria of Medical Importance that give Gram
Negative Reaction: This classification was carried out in 1986 and
placed spirochetes, spiral and curved, aerobic bacteria and
facultatively aerobic rods, obligate anaerobic bacteria, aerobic and
anaerobic cocci, sulfate and sulfur-reducing, rickettsias, clamydias,
mycoplasmas in this group.
 The Kingdome Procaryotae is divided into four divisions: Gracilicutes,
Firmicutes, Tenericutes, Mendosicutes (Archeabacteria). You can read
about characteristics of archaebacteria in detail. Let us directly go into
the classification of bacteria flow chart and enlist the various bacteria
and their group

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