UNIT-2 NATURAL RESOURCES: RENEWABLE AND NON-

RENEWABLE RESOURCES

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESOURCES

A resource is any useful information, material or service. In other words, anything which is useful
to man or can be transformed into a useful product or can be used to produce a useful thing can be
referred to as a Resource.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
Resources are generally classified into (1) natural, (2) human made and (3) human resources.
(1) Natural Resources:
A natural resource is a substance or a material tangible or intangible, freely available and can be
derived from the nature that satisfy the wants of living beings.
In simple words resources that are drawn from nature and used without much modification are
called natural resources. The air we breathe, the water in our rivers and lakes, the soils, minerals
are all-natural resources. Many of these resources are free gift of nature and can be used directly.
In some cases, tools and technology may be needed to use a natural resource in the best possible
way.
Basically, natural resource is the resource obtained from nature. It is these natural resources which
form the very basis of entire life on this planet.
Natural resources have been exploited by human since the beginning of civilization or even before,
however since the resources were abundant than relative to human population, no significant
depletion occurred. But due to considerable increase in human population during the last millennia,
a serious damage or destruction has been caused to the natural resources.
(2) Human Made Resources:
Sometimes, natural substances become resources only when their original form has been changed.
Iron ore was not a resource until people learnt to extract iron from it. People use natural resources
to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery and vehicles which are known as human made
resources. Technology is also a human made resource.
(3) Human Resources:
People can make the best use of nature to more resources when they have the knowledge, skill and
the technology to do so. That is why human being is a special resource. People are human
resources. Education and health help in making people valuable resource. Improving the quality
of people's skills so that they are able to create more resources is known as human resource
development.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:
The quantity and quality of natural resources very greatly located in their location. For instance,
particular types of forest and grassland may occur only in certain countries. The geographical area
covered by forest and grasslands, and the quality of their produce also differ widely in different
countries. Depending upon the availability and abundance, natural resources are of two types: (1)
inexhaustible and (2) exhaustible

Natural
. Resources

Inexhaustible Exhaustible

1. Solar energy Renewable

1. Water Non-Renewable
2. Wind Power
2. Soil fertility 1. Biological species
3. Rain fall 3.Natural Vegetation 2. Minerals
4. Wild life
4. Power of tides 5. Aquatic Animals
5.Hydro Power 6.Humans

(1) Inexhaustible Resources: These resources are present in unlimited quantity in the nature and
they are not likely to be exhausted by human activities. Some inexhaustible resources remain
unaffected by human activities, while many other may show some changes in their quality. Solar
energy, wind power, tide power, rainfall and even atomic energy are classified as inexhaustible
resources. These resources cannot be exhausted significantly at global level due to human
activities. Some resources may sometimes be affected locally by human activities, e.g. the quality
of air is changed due to pollution.
(2) Exhaustible Resources: These resources have limited supply on the Earth, and are, therefore,
liable to be exhausted if used indiscriminately. Exhaustible resources are of two renewable and
non-renewable.
1. Renewable Resources: Renewable resources are those which can be used over and over
again under certain condition, e.g. forests, land (soil), water, air, population of plants and
animals etc.
2. Non-renewable Resources: Non-renewable resources are those which are exhaustible
and cannot be restored and replaced, e.g. fossil fuel like coal and petroleum, minerals and
salts as well as ores.

The natural resource can also be classified as -

1. Biotic Resources: A biotic resource is the resource which is directly or indirectly

derived from photosynthetic activity of green plants. Food fruits, wood, fibre, milk and
milk products, fish, meat, leather etc. are termed as biotic resource. Coal, oil and natural
gas are also biotic resources as they were produced by photosynthetic activity of plants
which occurred millions of years ago.

2.Abiotic Resources: Mineral material, fresh water, rocks, salts and chemicals etc. are
termed as abiotic resources as biological activity is not involved in their formation.

NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS

Natural resources are very useful to man. They contribute to industrial and economic development
and promote human welfare. But there are several problems associated with the exploitation and
use of natural resources. They are as followed:
1.Natural resources are not unlimited. They are finite or limited. So, they must be properly
exploited and used wisely so that they are available for future generation too.
2.Natural Resources particularly minerals and fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas
are non-renewable. So, over exploitation and over utilization of these resources will lead to
shortage or scarcity in future.
3.Over exploitation of natural resources such as forest, wildlife, marine life etc. will lead to
ecological imbalance.
4.Huge cost is involved in exploitation of natural resources. Eg- mining for the exploitation of
minerals, construction of dams for power generation, irrigation everything is costly.
5.Over-exploitation of forests, reckless felling of trees, will lead to deforestation.
6.Deforestation, resulting from over-exploitation of forests, results in loss of natural habitats
for wildlife.
7. Deforestation and over use of land resources may lead to desertification.
8.Soil erosion is a serious problem resulting from over-exploitation of forest, mining, improper
land use etc.
9. Over-exploitation of marine life will result in loss of certain species of fishes and other
marine life.
10.Pollution is a serious problem associated with over-exploitation and over-utilisation of
natural resources.
11.Over-exploitation and over-utilisation of natural resources like forests, minerals, fossil
fuels, lands, etc. is responsible for air pollution, noise pollution etc.
12. Hazards such as landslides, floods etc. are associated with exploitation of natural resources.
13.Exploitation of rivers by constructing large dams cause problems, such as loss of
biodiversity, displacement of tribal people etc.

FOREST RESOURCES
Definition of Forest:
A forest is a biotic community which is predominantly composed of trees, shrubs or any woody
vegetation and often with a closed canopy (overhanging covering). Approximately one third
of the Earth's total land area is covered by forests. Forests are the valuable wealth of a country.
In other words, forest resources play an important role in the economy of any country, because
forests are the great national wealth.
Forests are important to humans and the natural world. Forest provide fuel wood, timber, wild
life habitat, industrial forest products, climate regulations, medicinal plants.
In simple words Forest is complex ecological system and natural resource in which trees are
the dominant life-form.
Importance of Forest Resources
Forest resources are of immense value to the life and prosperity of human beings and of
nations. They provide a rich variety of goods useful both to the affluent industrial societies and
the rural poor. The importance/uses of forests include:

(1) Wood: Wood is the major forest produce. In developing countries, the heaviest demand on
forest is for fuel wood for cooking and heating. Fuelwood, infact, accounts for almost half of
all wood harvested worldwide.
(2) Timber: Industrial timber and roundwood (unprocessed logs) obtained from forests are
used to make lumber, plywood, veneer boards, doors, window, furniture, carts, ploughs, tool
handles, sports goods etc. It is also a raw material for the manufacturing of paper, rayon and
film. Together, they account for slightly less than one-half of the worldwide wood consumption
(3) Minor Forest Products: Besides timber, the contribution of minor forest products to
economy is not negligible. Forest provide resins, thatch, rattan, fruits, nuts, herbs, medicinal
plants, pharmaceuticals, oil, forage, commercial flowers, spices , syrups, bamboos, canes,
sandalwood, dyes, gums tanning materials, lac, honey, wax etc.
(4) Vital Role in Life and Economy of Tribals: Forests play a vital role in the life and
economy of forest dwellers and tribes living in forests. Forests provide food (fruits, roots,
tubers and leaves of plants and meat from animals), medicines and many other commercial
products that are necessary for forest-based subsistence pattern.
(5) Ecological Significance of Forests: Forest ecosystem provides a host of environmental
services including maintaining biological diversity, providing wildlife habitat, cycling
nutrients, producing oxygen, reducing atmospheric pollution by collecting the suspended
particulate matter and by absorbing carbon dioxide and affecting regional rainfall pattern. They
also regulate streamflow, reduce flooding, store water, moderate wind erosion and reclaim
degraded land. Forests prevent erosion of soil by wind and water and provide shade which
prevents the soil from becoming too dry and friable (easily crumbled) during the summer.
Further, they improve the quality of soil by increasing the porosity and fertility by contributing
humus to it.
(6) Aesthetic and Other Values: Forests have a great aesthetic value. There is hardly any part
of the earth where people do not appreciate the beauty and tranquility of forests. Additionally.
forests provide areas for ecosystem research, provide opportunities for recreation and spiritual
renewal and inspire literature, music, religion and art.

Deforestation
Deforestation can be defined as the large-scale removal of trees from forests (or other lands)
for the facilitation of human activities. It is a serious environmental concern since it can result
in the loss of biodiversity, damage to natural habitats, disturbances in the water cycle, and soil
erosion. Deforestation is also a contributor to climate change and global warming.
"Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the lands thereafter converted
to a non-forest use.”
Causes of Deforestation:
The main causes of deforestation are as follows:
(1) Explosion of Human Population: Due to over population of human being, requirement
of timber, fuel, paper, wood, etc. has been increased. Man has cleared large areas of forests for
agriculture, housing, factories, roads and railway tracks, development projects, etc.
(2) Overgrazing: Overgrazing of forests by live stock has resulted in large scale degradation
of forests.
(3) Pests: Many kinds of insects and pests destroy trees by eating up leaves, boring into shoots
and spreading diseases.
(4) Fires: Fire is a worst enemy of forest. It destroys the full-grown trees, seedlings, seeds and
even humus. It also causes large scale damage to animal life.
(5) Weather: Extreme weather conditions such as frost, storms and heat also destroy forest.

Effects of Deforestation
The effects of deforestation are as follows:
1. Soil Erosion: In the absence of forests/trees, especially on slopes, the soil gets washed away
with rain water. It leads to the loss of the fertile top soil.
2. Expansions of Deserts: Denuded land mass gradually gets converted into sand deserts due
to action of strong winds laden by fragmented rock dust. The effect is more pronounced in rain
scarced area.
3. Migration of Population: Migration of local and tribal population from deserts to other
fertile land in search of food leaving behind vast tracks of sands only.
4. Decrease in rainfall: Forests, bring rains due to high rate of transpiration and precipitation.
In the absence of forests, rainfall declines considerably. It also causes lesser trees to grow in
that area.
5. Loss of Fertile Land: Less rainfall results into the loss of fertile land owing to less natural
vegetational growth.
6. Effect on Climate: The Climate of a region is mainly controlled by the rainfall, snowfall
etc. Deforestation causes decrease in rainfall, which in turn increases the climatic temperature.
7. Lowering of Water Table : Decrease in rainfall results into a lowered water table due to
lack of recharging of underground resources.
8. Economic Losses: Deforestation will cause loss of industrial timber and non-timber
products and loss of long-term productivity of the site.
9. Loss of Flora and Fauna: Certain species of flora and fauna are getting extinct from the
face of planet, mainly due to deforestation. Deforestation leads to the destruction of natural
habitats (natural living places) of wild animals which may lead to their extinction.
10.Loss of Biodiversity: Loss of flora and fauna has resulted int loss of biodiversity, leading
to the disturbances in ecological balance worldwide.
11. Loss of Medicinal Plants: There are many species of plants which have medicinal and
other advantages, like Neem (Indian Margosa) which has been used in India for centuries as
insecticide, fungicide, in medicine and in biofertilizers. Deforestation may lead to the
extinction of these types of valuable plants.
12. Environmental Changes: The air we breathe, is purified by forests. So, deforestation will
lead to increase in carbon dioxide and other air pollutants concentration. This will lead to global
warming, which is a serious effect as well as threat.
13. Possibility of Flood: Deforestation leads to frequent floods in that area.
14. Scarcity of Fuelwood: In many places the lack of fuelwood due to deforestation challenges
local/tribal people, especially where fuelwood had already been scarce. Shortage of firewood
may cause serious misery among the tribal womenfolk. In rural and tribal societies, fuel budget
constitutes the major portion of the household budget.
15. Effect on Agriculture: Agriculture may be negatively impacted as deforestation causes
soil loss or compaction, or sedimentation of irrigation system.
16. Human life and Downstream Structures: Human life and downstream structure may be
endangered by floods that may be intensified by clearing forests on upstream watersheds.
17. Effect on Other Ecosystem: Disturbances of forest ecosystem in a particular location may
result in important changes in other ecosystems that may be separated by great distance.

Afforestation
Afforestation is the process of introducing trees and tree seedlings to an area that has
previously not been forested. Afforestation can be done through tree planting and seeding,
naturally or artificially.
Afforestation involves planting trees in areas that haven't recently had any tree cover, in order
to create a forest. The type of land planted could include areas that have turned into desert
(through desertification), places that have long been used for grazing, disused agricultural
fields, or industrial areas.
Importance of Afforestation

1. Provides an Alternative Source of Tree Products

In today’s world, the rate at which trees grow naturally in forests is much slower than the rate at
which trees in forests are cut down for production. The increased demand for tree products has
pressured forests, resulting in deforestation.

Afforestation is helping alleviate the pressure on natural forests by providing an alternative source
of tree products. It is mainly done for commercial purposes.

2. Increases Supply of Trees that Are in High Demand

In the commercial world, demand is usually high for a specific type of tree. Afforestation allows
stakeholders to plant the types of trees in demand, promoting the fast propagation of specific types
of trees. Introducing a new supply of trees, for instance, can help stabilize the cottage industry,
resulting in stable prices and business reliability.

3. Protects Natural Forests

Protecting natural forests without providing alternative sources of tree products is very difficult
and unsustainable. Besides, logging is more common in places without alternative sources of tree
products. However, when commercial tree users have alternative sources of supply, they can
support the administrative and policy efforts to protect forests, resulting in more sustainable
initiatives. Protecting natural forests also leads to other benefits that come with increased tree
forest cover, like preserving catchments, wetlands, and riverside zones.

4. Has Lots of Environmental benefits

Planting trees on barren land is, on some occasions, more beneficial than planting trees in a
depleted or depleting forest. Planting trees in depleted or recovering forests helps restore the area’s
ecosystem, but planting trees in barren land helps create a new ecosystem. Most governments and
institutions have used afforestation to help revert the arid and semi-arid areas to productive areas
and improve the appearance of barren lands into picturesque areas.

5. Value Addition

An easy way to transform barren land is by planting trees. Land with trees is more attractive and
valuable than barren land. Whether seeking to develop or sell property, planting trees is a sure way
of increasing the property’s value.
Measures of Forest Conservation and Management:

Following measures should be adopted to conserve forests:

1. A tree removed (or felling) from the forest for any purpose must be replaced by a new tree
as early as possible.

2. Afforestation should be done in area unfit for agriculture, along highways and rivers, around
playgrounds and parks.

3. Maximum economy should be observed in the use of timber and fuel wood by minimizing
the wastage.

4. The use of fire wood should be discouraged and alternative source of energy for cooking
such as biogas, natural gas etc. should be made available.

5. Forests should be protected from fire. Modern firefighting equipment should be used to
extinguish accidental forest fire.

6. Pests and diseases of forest trees should be controlled by fumigation and aerial spray of
fungicides and through biological method of pest control.

7. Grazing of cattles in the forests should be discouraged.

8. Modern methods of forest management should be adopted. These include:

- Use of irrigation.

-Use of fertilizers.

- Bacterial and mycorrhizal inoculation.

- Disease and pest management.

- Control of weeds

- Breeding of elite trees.

- Tissue culture techniques.

WATER RESOURCES
Fresh water is a natural resource of fundamental importance, without water life is not possible. In
many aspects the properties of water are unique. They seem to be especially designed for the living
organisms. No other liquid can replace it. Water is the main constituent of hydrosphere and is a
vital natural renewable resource. Water is needed for daily use by organisms, for irrigation,
navigation, industrial use, electricity production and domestic use. About three-fourth of the earth
surface is occupied by oceans. It is therefore appropriately called the "water planet." These oceans
contain about 97.5% of the earth's water in strongly saline conditions. The rest 2.5% is fresh water
and all of this is not available for direct human use. Most of the fresh water (i.e. 1.97% of the total
water) is permanently frozen as polar or glacial ice. Remaining fresh water occurs as ground water
(0.5%), water in lakes and rivers (0.02%). (0.01%) and atmosphere (0.00019%). Thus, only a small
fraction of fresh water is geographically uneven varying greatly from country to country and even
within a country from one region to another.

Dams and Their Social and Environmental Impact:

In India formerly, the agriculture was based only on rain but nowadays to use the water of the
rivers throughout the year dams are constructed on big rivers. In India Bhakhra Nangal Dam ,
Kakrapar Dam , Nagarjuna Sagar, Hirakud dams are constructed and they are utilised for the
purpose of agriculture and producing electricity.
Benefits of Dams:
Following are the benefits of the dams :
1. Hydroelectricity generation.
2. Ensuring a year-round water supply.
3. Transfer of water from areas of excess water to areas of deficit water using canals.
4. Flood control and soil protection.
5. Irrigation during dry periods.
6. Multi-purpose river valley projects also provide for inland water navigation, and can be used
to develop fish hatcheries and nurseries.

Adverse Effects of Dams:

Though dams have been useful over the centuries; but in recent years tapping of rivers through big
dams has created lot of human as well as environmental issues. In many cases, they reduce water
availability and destroy both natural and human values. Some of the disadvantages/problems,
adverse effects of dams are as under:
1. The sizes of forests will be reduced.
2. The villages which are coming in the way, are to be emptied by the people and hence the
accommodation problem arises.
3. The land always remains humid and hence the loss of fertility.
4. In reservoirs silt settles and hence their capacity is reduced.
5. It affects the fishery industries also.
6. Deep inside the earth the pressure changes and hence the possibility of earthquake arises.
7. Some dams lose so much water through evaporation and seepage into porous rock beds that
they waste more water than they make available.
8. Salts left behind by evaporation increase the salinity of the river and make its water unusable
when it reaches the down-stream cities.
9. A number of water-related diseases have been casually linked with the creation of reservoirs
and the resettlement of populations when dams are built.
10. Dam projects can also lead to lowered nutritional status when highly productive fields are
flooded.

Floods
A flood is an overflow of water on land. Sometimes a river might receive extra water, either from
heavy rains or other natural disasters. When this happens, the water overflows from its normal path
in the river bed and onto the dry land. In simple words, A flood is an overflow of water that
submerges land which is usually meant to be dry. While it may occur along river banks, lakes and
sea coasts, river flooding is the most common of all around the world.
Droughts
The condition of dryness for prolonged period is called drought It results when the average rainfall
for an area drops below the normal. Droughts cause famine and starvation of human and animal
population of the region concerned. Prolonged drought conditions in a region change the biotic
components of the ecosystem due to death of several plant and animal species.
Human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, mining etc. are largely responsible for spreading
of deserts, thereby converting more areas to drought affected areas.
The problem of drought can be mitigated by afforestation programmes, which increase the content
of air moisture, the amount of precipitation and the rate of water infiltration. Dry farming
techniques and water conservation schemes also prove quite effective to fight the problem of
drought.
Watershed:
It is an area from which all water from rainfall or precipitation flows through a single stream or a
set of streams. A watershed is an area of land that drains or “sheds” water into a specific waterbody.
Recharging
During rainfall, ponds, lakes and rivers are full of water. Also, the ground water level is quite high.
But as we go far from rainfall season towards the winter and summer, the water level slowly goes
down and ultimately some of them become completely dry. Under- ground water level also goes
down. The process of precipitation replenishing the groundwater water supply is known as ground
water recharge or recharging. Some of the rivers like Ganga and Brahmaputra which are having
their origin at Himalaya, are recharged during summer due to the snowmelt and also recharged
during rainfall season. The other resources are recharged during rainfall period only.

Conservation of Water
Some of the methods of conservations and management of water resources are as follows:
1. Water can be conserved by holding as much rain water as possible particularly in catchment
areas such as hill tracks by constructing dams on rivers and on other catchment areas.
2. The banks of the rivers and streams should be made smooth and gently sloping to prevent water
seeping into mud rocks and loose soil.
3. To prevent, evaporation of water and erosion of soil, thick canopy of foliage trees should be
developed on banks of rivers & streams.
4. To construct tube wells from which, water will not be easily lost by evaporation.
5. Increase in irrigation efficiency in agricultural fields by reducing water wastage (sprinkle
irrigation, drip irrigation etc.)
6., Recycling of used water in industries so as to reduce water wastage.
7. Reduction in domestic water wastage by constructing waste water treatment plants and recycling
the treated water.
8. Desalinization of sea water and saline ground water to make it fit for human consumption and
other purposes.
9. Diversion of water bodies through canals to increase water supply in drier areas.
10. Regular dredging and desiltation of rivers, streams and other water bodies.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Mineral :A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with distinctive chemical and physical
properties, composition and atomic structure. Economic minerals are extracted from the Earth by
quarrying, mining and pumping and used in a wide range of applications related to construction,
manufacturing, agriculture and energy supply. They include:

 minerals
 metals
 rocks like building stones and aggregates
 hydrocarbons: both solid, like coal, and liquid, like petroleum

A mineral is an element or an organic compound that occurs naturally and is solid.

Mineral Resource: A mineral resource is a concentration of a naturally occurring solid, liquid
or gaseous material inside or on the Earth's crust and its extraction is profitable.
Mines: The place where the mining work is carried out is known as mine.
Mining: The term "mining" refers to the process of taking out mineral or their ores from the Earth.
Some materials can be mined more easily as they are found at the Earth's surface, while others lie
far beneath the surface and can be obtained by digging deep underground.
The process of mining involves large number of problems for minerals. Abnormal temperature
and pressure variations, rock burst, fire and gas hazards, lack of ventilation and drainage, collapse
of roof and side walls are the peculiar problems encountered only in mining industry.
There are two methods of mining: surface mining and sub- surface mining:
(1) Surface Mining: This method of mining is utilised when the mineral deposits occur
at or near the surface of the earth. It can be done by following three ways:
1. Open Pit Mining: The minerals are extracted out by making pits by removing the over
burden (i.e. the materials that cover the deposits). The materials like copper, iron,
gravel, limestone, sand-stone, marble, granite etc. are obtained by this method.
2. Dredging: The dredging method of mining involves the extraction of minerals or
sediments from the bottom of bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, or coastal areas. It is
commonly used for the mining of valuable minerals, the reclamation(improvement) of
land, and the maintenance of waterways. The process involves the use of specialized
equipment called dredgers or dredging vessels. In this method chained buckets and drag
lines are used to scrap out the minerals from under water mineral deposits.
3. Strip Mining: In this method the ores are stripped off by using bulldozers, power
shovels and stripping wheels. Phosphate rocks are removed by this method.
(2) Sub-Surface Mining: This method is used when the mineral deposit lies deep beneath the
earth's surface. Big holes are dug in the earth surface to extract out ores from the horizontal
ore bodies.

Uses of Minerals :
The main uses of minerals are as follows:

1. Development of industrial plants and machinery.

2. Generation of energy. e.g., coal, lignite, uranium.

3. Construction, housing, settlements.

4. Defence equipment - weapons, armaments.

5. Transportation means.

6. Communication telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.

7. Medicinal system - particularly in Ayurvedic system.

8. Formation of alloys for various purposes (e.g. phosphorite)

9. Agriculture as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides.

10. Jewellery - gold, silver, platinum, diamond.

Environmental Effect of Mineral Extraction and Use

The mining of mineral resources usually has a considerable effect on land, air, water and
biological resources. Following are some major environmental effect of mining operations:

1. Land degradation.

2. Surface and ground water pollution due to the release of harmful trace elements such as
cobalt (paints, rubber, inks, cosmetic), cadmium (batteries , solar cells ), led by leaching
(process of extracting solid from liquid) (minerals from ores).

3. Adverse effect on the growth of vegetation.

4. Defacing of landscape. (top soil is removed)

 5. Subsidence of land. (sinking of ground)

6. Loss of fauna and flora, finally resulting in deforestation.

7. Air pollution due to emission of harmful gases.

8. Adverse effects on biological environment directly or indirectly by mining.

9. Physical changes in the land, water, soil and air associated with mining.

10. Rehabilitation problem of local inhabitant especially tribal people.

11. Occupational health hazard.

Conservation of Minerals:
The ever-increasing demands from the industry, transport, agriculture and defence preparation are
a cause of concern. Depletion of almost all known and easily accessible deposits are anticipated in
the very near future. Moreover, there may be shortage of some crucial elements such as mercury,
tin, copper, gold, silver and platinum. The limited resources of phosphorous, which is an essential
component of chemical fertilizers, is another cause of concern.
Efforts are thus urgently required to check the wasteful and injudicious use of minerals. Some of
the suggested measure in this direction are:

(1) Recycling: In recycling used and discarded items are collected and reprocessed into
new products e.g. iron scraps, aluminum cans, etc. Some minerals present in products as
such can also be recycled e.g. gold, silver, lead, nickel, Steel, copper aluminum, zinc etc.
However, minerals in other products are lost through normal use e.g. paints containing
lead, zinc or chromium.

(2) Reuse: Certain items can be collected and can be used over and over again e.g. reuse
of glass bottles. The reuse of items is more beneficial than their recycling. However, all
products cannot be reused.

(3) Substitution: The use of scarce minerals can be substituted with more abundant
minerals keeping in mind the environmental implications. For instance, in recent years,
plastic, ceramics, high strength glass fibre and alloys have been substituted for scarcer
minerals (materials) like steel, tin and copper in many industries.

(4) Decreased Consumption: To maintain the extended supply of minerals for a longer
time, consumers must decrease their minerals consumption by becoming a low waste
society. Products that are durable and repairable should be used again instead of discarding
them as waste.

(5) Use of Waste: The manufacturing industries may use the waste products of one
manufacturing process as the raw materials for another industry.

FOOD RESOURCES
Meaning of Food
Food is that which nourishes the body or food is a prerequisite of nutrition. Food may also
be defined as anything eaten or drunk, which can be absorbed by the body to be used as an
energy source, building, regulating or protective material. In short, food is the raw material
from which our bodies are made. Intake of the right kinds and amount of food can ensure
good health, which may be evident in our appearance, efficiency and emotional well-being.

In other words, the definition of food can be given as under: We all eat roti and rice, bread
and butter, fruits and vegetables, eggs and pulses, vegetable oils and ghee. Some of us also
eat meat and fish. And all of us drink milk. These are some of the examples of the food.
We can now say that: Food is nutritive substance taken by an organism for growth, work,
repaid and maintaining life processes. Food is a kind of fuel for the living things. Just as
petrol is fuel for car, in the same way food is a fuel for our body. We must eat food to live
that is, we must eat food to carry on all the life processes. The main food that we eat to
provide us energy is known as staple food. Rice, roti (chapati) and bread are some examples
of our staple food. This is why we use them as the main dish in our meals.

World food problem

Undernourishment: Undernourishment is the lack of sufficient calories in available diet.
According to Food and Agricultural Organisation, FAO, the average minimum daily
calorific requirement is 2500 calories per day. People taking less than 90% daily
requirement are said to be undernourished. In the condition of undernourishment, the living
being does not have sufficient energy to lead an active and productive life. Consequently,
it has a little or no ability to work or move. Further, due to insufficient energy and nutrients,
their body becomes susceptible to a number of infectious diseases.

One more severe condition of undernourishment is "serious undernourishment" in which

people take less than 80% of their daily calorific requirement. It leads to stunted growth,
mental retardation and other type of disorders in the living being.

Malnutrition: Malnutrition is the lack of specific constituents of food, such as proteins,

vitamins or certain essential elements. It may also result from improper intake, as if person
is taking full diet to satisfy his appetite but not in proper proportion according to
requirement. This condition is very common in richer countries. Otherwise, in poorer
countries, it results due to economic reasons. This effect of malnourishment is long-term
and result in number of diseases.
 Components of Our Food:

Food has many different components and each component is necessary for one function or
the other. The major components of our food are:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Vitamins

3. Fats

4. Water

5. Proteins

6. Roughage (fibre)

7. Minerals (salts)

The carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts and vitamins are called nutrients because they
required for the survival of living beings like human beings. Though water is an important
constituent of our food and makes up for two thirds of our body-weight, it is usually not considered
a nutrient. Our diet usually contains all the nutrients in varying amounts. For example, roti or rice
give us carbohydrates (or energy), dal (pulses), egg or meat give us proteins, butter and ghee give
us fats, whereas fruits and vegetables give us minerals and vitamins.

Balanced Diet:

The food taken by human beings is called diet. A diet consists of many food items made from
cereals. fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs and milk etc. The diet which contains adequate amounts of
all the essential nutrients like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins, sufficient for
the normal growth and development of the body, is called a balanced diet. A balanced diet should
also contain sufficient amounts of water and roughage material. Thus, the constituents of a
balanced diet are :

(1) Carbohydrates (2) Fats (3) Proteins (4) Minerals (salts) (5) Vitamins (6) Water and (7)
Roughage(fibre)

No single food can provide all the essential nutrients in adequate amounts. So, a balanced diet
consists of a number of food items which taken together, provide all the nutrients, water and
roughage to the body.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances present in minute amounts in natural foodstuffs. Having too little
of any particular vitamin may increase the risk of developing certain health issues.
A vitamin is an organic compound, which means that it contains carbon. It is also an essential
nutrient that the body may need to get from food.
There are currently 13 recognized vitamins.

Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins

Vitamins are either soluble, or dissoluble, in fat or water.
Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble. The body stores fat-soluble vitamins in fatty tissue and
the liver, and reserves of these vitamins can stay in the body for days and sometimes months.
Dietary fats help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins through the intestinal tract.
Water-soluble vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins do not stay in the body for long and cannot be stored. They leave the body
via the urine. Because of this, people need a more regular supply of water-soluble vitamins than
fat-soluble ones.
Vitamin C and all the B vitamins are water-soluble
The 13 vitamins
Vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, C, D, E, K

Important Elements of the Management of Food Resources:

The important elements of the management of food resources are:

1. Planning for food production.

2. Monitoring the progress of food production plans (schemes).

3. Pre-harvest and post-harvest management of crops.

4. Safe storage of food-grains.

5. Control of pests and diseases in stored food grains.

6. Processing of food materials.

 7. Preservation of perishable foods.

8. Packaging of food materials.

9. Transportation of food materials.

10. Distribution of food materials.

11. Conservation of food materials (to minimize the wastage at every stage).

What is Food processing?

“Food processing is the transformation of agricultural products into food, or one form of food into

other forms.”
Food Processing is the process of transforming food items into a form that can be used. It can cover
the processing of raw materials into food via different physical and chemical processes. Various
activities covered in this process are mincing (finest level of chopping), cooking, canning,
liquefaction (generates liquid from solid Eg- jellies, sauces, jams, soups), pickling, macerating
(softing food using liquid) and emulsification (forcefully mix two immiscible liquids like oil and
water Eg-butter, mayonnaise).
Objectives of Food Processing
Food technology is a very vast domain concerning with the production and processing of food.
Food processing has certain objectives, such as:
 It boosts the shelf life of food products.
 Prevent food-contamination.
 Food storage and Transportation.
 Turns raw food materials into attractive, marketable products.
 Provide employment to a large population.

Food processing Methods

There are certain criteria that have to be compiled for the appropriate processing of food, right
from the possibility of a pest or bacteria to invade and multiply on foods to the biological activity
of foods. The following methods are applied for the proper processing of food:
 Peeling off the outer layers of the raw materials.
 Chopping or slicing
 Mincing
 Liquefaction
 Fermentation (convert carbohydrate starch or sugar into an alcohol or an acid)
 Emulsification
 Cooking
 Mixing
  Gasification such as the addition of a gas in bread or soft drinks.
 Proofing (dough is allowed to rest)
 Spray drying (allows the food to be completely dried out eg- coffee, dry milk powder)
 Pasteurization (heating to extend shelf life and eliminate pathogens eg-juices, cheese,
butter)
 Packaging
Other Methods of Food Processing
Food preservation is a process involved in food processing employed to prevent the growth of
fungi, bacteria, and many other microorganisms. It involves the process of slowing down the
oxidation of fats that would lead to rancidity. There are several food preservation methods that are
designed specifically to preserve food. Some of the selected few preservation methods are stated
below:
 Drying :- It is one of the traditional techniques that are employed to decompose food
products. Exposure of food particles to sunlight to dry them is one such method done
naturally. This process would result in the evaporation of moisture content from food, thus
preventing microorganisms from invading the food. Moisture from food could also be
removed by using hot air.
 Cooling :-It is a technique of preserving food by slowing down the growth of
microorganisms and action of an enzyme that is responsible for the rotting of food. Some
of the food products such as meat, dairy products, and fish could be stored in a refrigerator
thus increasing the shelf-life of the products.
 Freezing :-It is one of the regular processes that has been under use domestically and
commercially to preserve a wide range of foods. Rapid freezing might have an adverse
effect on the texture of food.
 Heating:-The majority of microorganisms and spores could be destroyed by applying
sufficient heat to food items. One of the known examples includes boiling of milk.
 Pickling :-It is a process of preserving food in an edible and antimicrobial liquid. Pickling
could be categorized into two types, namely fermentation and thermal pickling.
In fermentation pickling, bacteria present in a liquid produces organic agents which would
act as preservation agents.
In chemical pickling, the food is preserved in an edible liquid that destroys microorganisms
and bacteria.
Benefits of Food processing
The important benefits of food processing include:
1. Food processing reduces the number of harmful bacteria in food that can cause diseases.
For e.g., drying, pickling dehydrates the food product and alters the pH that prevents the
growth of harmful microorganisms.
2. It also improves the shelf-life of food products.
3. It reduces health inequalities and major health concerns.

Drawbacks of Food Processing

The important drawbacks of food processing include:
 Processed food contains artificial ingredients.
 A large number of resources are spent in making the food pleasant to the brain that leads
to overconsumption.
 Processed foods are the biggest source of added sugar that is very unhealthy.

Food Preservation
Definition
“Food preservation is the technique to prevent food spoilage, food poisoning, and microbial
contamination in food.”

What is Food Preservation?

Food preservation is one of the methods to protect food from unwanted microbial growth. After
the food is produced, we store and protect by covering the rice and curry with lids to keep away
flies and other insects. By this, we are protecting it from any infection caused by them. This is a
short-term condition. Food preservation, on the other hand, is done to preserve food for a longer
time.

Objectives of Food Preservation

Following are the important objectives of food preservation:
1. To prevent microbial contamination.
2. To kill pathogens.
3. To minimise food spoilage and food poisoning.

Food Preservation Methods

Food preservation started long back in ancient times. Cooling, freezing, fermentation, sun-drying,
etc., are few age-old food preservation techniques. With the advent of technology, modern methods
of food preservation were developed. Chemicals and other natural substances were used for
preservation. These substances are known as preservatives. Some of the methods of preservation
are: -
 Chemical Method :-Salt and edible oils are two main preservatives which are used since
ages to prevent microbial growth. This is why we add extra oil to pickles. Preservation by
salt is known as salting. Salting helps to preserve fruits for a long term. Meats and fishes
can also be preserved by salting.
Other synthetic preservatives include vinegar, sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulfite, etc.
 Sugar :-Sugar is another common preservative used in jams and jellies. Sugar is a good
moisture absorbent. By reducing moisture content, it restrains the microbial growth.
 Heat and Cold Methods :-Boiling and refrigeration prevent around 70 percent of
microbial growth. Boiling kills the microorganisms that cannot tolerate extreme
temperatures. Thus, it helps in food preservation.
Refrigerators have very low temperatures. Since microbes do not get optimum temperature
they need for growth, their growth is inhibited. Pasteurization developed by Louis Pasteur
is used until today to preserve milk.
 Smoking :-Smoking prevents dehydration in fish and meat and thus prevents spoilage. The
wood smoke contains a large number of anti-microbial compounds that slow the
rancidification of animal fats.
 Canning :-The food contents are sealed in an airtight container at high temperatures. Meat,
fish, fruits are preserved by canning.
 Sterilization :-This method is carried out to remove microbes from food. For eg., milk
sterilization at 100°C kills the microbes.
 Dehydration :-It is the process of removal of water from food. It is the simplest method
and prevents food spoilage by removing water.
 Lyophilization :-This is the process of freezing and dehydration of the frozen product
under vacuum.
 Radiation :-This method is also known as cold sterilization. The UV rays, X rays, gamma
rays kill all the unwanted microbes present in food.
The principle behind all these methods is either to reduce the temperature conditions
required for microbial growth or to evaporate the water content.
Advantages of Food Preservation
There are many different advantages of preserving our own food including:
1. Prolonging the shelf life of the produce we have grown locally, thus reducing the need to import
food.
2. Reducing the amount of packaging we import into the country and waste we accumulate by
reusing jars etc.
3. Saving money by buying produce in bulk from local farmers when in season
4. Creating personal empowerment by reducing our dependence on corporations to feed ourselves
and our families.
5. Enhancing flavors, as some preservation techniques will produce a unique and special product,
such as making pickles from cucumbers or specialty hot sauces from local pepper varieties.
6. Improving our resiliency as an island nation by reducing our need to import food.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Definition
Energy resources can be defined as materials or elements that can be used to produce energy.
Energy is a quantitative property, which produces an output or a force that can be analysed.
This energy can be in the form of electricity, heat, or mechanical energy.
Three primary types of energy include fossil fuels, nuclear energy and renewable energy, each
type of energy resource with its own advantages and disadvantages.

Uses of Energy

Broadly, energy is used for the following purposes:

 Cooking, heating, lighting and other such facilities.

 Transporting peoples and goods.
 Manufacturing consumer goods and capital equipment.
 Production and conversion of primary fuels into other forms of energy as desired by the
consumers (e.g., conversion of chemical to electrical energy by dry cell battery) and many
more.

Classification of Energy Resources:

The energy resources can be classified in many ways:

 Commercial Sources of Energy: - Consumers have to pay a price for energy generated
through these sources. These sources of energy are exhaustible. These sources are used by
business. Coal, petroleum and electricity are examples of commercial energy.

 Non-Commercial Sources of Energy: - Consumers do not have to pay a price for energy
generated through these sources. These sources are generally renewable. These sources are
generally used by households. Firewood and cow-dung are examples of non-commercial
sources of energy.
  Primary Sources :- They are those sources which do not require any transformation before
their use. They are directly used e.g., coal, lignite, petroleum, gas, etc.

 Secondary Sources :- The sources which involve transformation process before final use
are referred to secondary sources e.g., transforming inputs of coal energy into electricity.

 Conventional Sources of Energy :-Convention energy sources are naturally present and
have been commonly in use for years. The use of conventional sources is done for heating,
lighting, cooking, running machinery, and provision of electricity. The examples for which
include firewood, fossil fuels, and others. In addition, firewood has been extensively used
for cooking purposes in remote regions of India.

 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy :-Non-conventional sources could be obtained

from sun, wind, hot springs, and others that support heat and power generation. They are
non-polluting and present in abundance within the Earth’s atmosphere. Examples of non-
conventional sources of energy include solar energy, bioenergy, tidal energy and wind
energy.

 Renewable Resources: -The resources which cannot be exhausted even after continuous
utilisation are termed renewable resources. Examples of renewable resources are the sun,
wind, and tidal energy.

 Non-renewable Resources: -The resources which cannot be immediately replaced once

they are depleted are called non-renewable resources. Examples of non-renewable
resources include fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas and rare minerals
typically found in meteorites.

Sources of energy

All of these different sources of energy are used primarily to produce electricity. The world runs
on a series of electrical reactions – whether you are talking about the car you are driving or the
light you are turning on. All of these different sources of energy add to the store of electrical power
that is then sent out to different locations via high powered lines.

1. Solar Energy: -Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels
to create conditions that can then be turned into a kind of power. Large solar panel fields are
often used in deserts to gather enough power to charge small substations, and many homes
use solar systems to provide for hot water, cooling and supplement their electricity. The
issue with solar is that while there are plentiful amounts of sunlight available, only certain
geographical ranges of the world get enough of the direct power of the sun for long enough
to generate usable power from this source.

2. Wind Energy: -Wind power is becoming more and more common. The new innovations
that are allowing wind farms to appear are making them a more common sight. By using
large turbines to take available wind as the power to turn, the turbine can then turn a
generator to produce electricity. While this seemed like an ideal solution to many, the reality
of the wind farms is starting to reveal an unforeseen ecological impact that may not make it
an ideal choice.

3. Geothermal Energy: - Geothermal energy: This is the energy stored within the earth (geo'
for earth and 'thermal' for heat). Geothermal energy starts with hot, molten rock (called
magma) deep inside the earth, which surfaces at some parts of the earth's crust. The heat
rising from the magma warms underground pools of water known as geothermal reservoirs.
If there is an opening, hot underground water comes to the surface and forms hot springs or
it may boil to form geysers. With modern technology, wells are drilled deep below the surface
of the earth to tap into geothermal reservoirs. This is called 'direct' use of geothermal energy,
and it provides a steady stream of hot water that is pumped to the earth's surface.

4. Hydrogen Energy :-Hydrogen is available with water(H2O) and is most common element
available on earth. Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination
with other elements. Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for generating electricity.
Hydrogen is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a source of fuel to power
ships, vehicles, homes, industries and rockets. It is completely renewable, can be produced
on demand and does not leave any toxic emissions in the atmosphere.

5. Tidal Energy: -Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert the kinetic energy of
incoming and outgoing tides into electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal
power is most prevalent in coastal areas. Huge investment and limited availability of sites
are few of the drawbacks of tidal energy. When there is an increased height of water levels
in the ocean, tides are produced which rush back and forth in the ocean. Tidal energy is one
of the renewable sources of energy and produces large energy even when the tides are at
low speed.

6. Wave Energy :-Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans.
Wave energy is renewable, environment-friendly and causes no harm to the atmosphere. It
can be harnessed along coastal regions of many countries and can help a country to reduce
its dependence on foreign countries for fuel. Producing wave energy can damage the marine
ecosystem and can also be a source of disturbance to private and commercial vessels. It is
highly dependent on wavelength and can also be a source of visual and noise pollution.

7. Hydroelectric Energy: -What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and
towns in the world rely on hydropower, and have for the past century. Every time you see a
major dam, it is providing hydropower to an electrical station somewhere. The power of the
water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then used. The problems
faced with hydropower right now have to do with the ageing of the dams. Many of them need
major restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs enormous sums of
money. The drain on the world’s drinkable water supply is also causing issues as townships
may wind up needing to consume the water that provides them power too.

8. Biomass Energy :-Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly
used throughout the world. Chlorophyll present in plants captures the sun’s energy by
converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates
through the process of photosynthesis. When the plants are burned, the water and carbon
dioxide is again released back into the atmosphere. Biomass generally includes crops, plants,
trees, yard clippings, wood chips and animal wastes. Biomass energy is used for heating and
cooking in homes and as a fuel in industrial production. This type of energy produces a large
amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
9. Nuclear Power: -While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how safe it
is to use, and whether or not it is really energy efficient when you take into account the waste
it produces – the fact is it remains one of the major renewable sources of energy available to
the world. The energy is created through a specific nuclear reaction, which is then collected
and used to power generators. While almost every country has nuclear generators, there are
moratoriums on their use or construction as scientists try to resolve safety and disposal
issues for waste.

10. Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas): -When most people talk about the different
sources of energy they list natural gas, coal and oil as the options – these are all considered
to be just one source of energy from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels provide the power for most of
the world, primarily using coal and oil. Oil is converted into many products, the most used of
which is gasoline. Natural gas is starting to become more common but is used mostly for
heating applications although there are more and more natural gas-powered vehicles
appearing on the streets. The issue with fossil fuels is twofold. To get to the fossil fuel and
convert it to use there has to be a heavy destruction and pollution of the environment. The
fossil fuel reserves are also limited, expecting to last only another 100 years given are basic
rate of consumption.

LAND RESOURCES
We have a limited amount of resources but human needs are unlimited. For human beings land has
many needs: it functions as an asset, produces food, stores water, has minerals for plant growth,
and more. The land resource is not a renewable resource, as the demand for land increases with
the increase of population, the amount of land will remain the same. Many measures and
techniques have been adapted to preserve the land that we have and we need to understand how to
manage the land.

Land As A Resource/uses

 Land for Human Survival :-The most important things that land supplies for human
survival are food, housing, and natural resources. Fertile land is necessary for growing crops
 because agriculture provides the majority of the world’s food. Additionally, the land is used
for forestry, fishing, and the raising of cattle, all of which produce food. The land is utilized
to construct homes, infrastructure, and other structures that offer protection from the
elements because shelter is another basic human need.

 Economic Activity:-The land is essential for supporting economic activity. For instance, the
use of land for forestry, mining, and agriculture can result in considerable economic benefits,
including money and jobs. The land is also used for urban and industrial development, which
can drive economic growth and create jobs. The land is seen as a valuable investment in
many nations due to its potential for appreciation.

 Cultural and Social :-Land has a crucial role in both economic and cultural as well as social
activities. The land is often associated with a sense of identity, belonging, and history, and it
is often used to mark cultural and political boundaries. Many cultures and societies regard
land as sacred, and it is the location of numerous religious and spiritual rituals.

 Biodiversity and Ecosystem :-The contribution that land makes to biodiversity and the
health of ecosystems is another factor in the importance of land as a resource. The flow of
water and other resources that are necessary for life are supported by the land, which also
offers a habitat for plants and animals. In order to prevent global warming and regulate the
Earth’s temperature, the land is also essential. It does this by absorbing carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere.

Finally, due to the limited quantity of land, it is seen as a valuable resource. As the
world’s population continues to grow, the demand for land is increasing, and competition for
resources is becoming more intense. This has led to land degradation, deforestation, and
other forms of environmental degradation, which have negative impacts on both human
society and the environment.

 Land in Agriculture :-The land is a crucial resource for agriculture. The majority of people
on earth are fed through agriculture, which is also a key driver of economic development in
many nations. The fact that land is frequently regarded as one of the most valuable assets for
investment and development speaks volumes about how important it is to agriculture.
The land is used in agriculture to grow crops and raise livestock, two activities that produce
vital food for human use. The viability of an agricultural operation can be significantly
impacted by the quality of the land and its appropriateness for cultivating particular crops.
The usefulness of a piece of land for agriculture is mostly determined by its fertility, amount
of rainfall, and climate.

 Land in forestry: -The land is essential to forestry because it serves as the base for the
growth of trees, an essential resource for human society. Many advantages come from
forests, such as the manufacture of paper, timber for building, and fuel, as well as wildlife
habitat, recreational activities, and carbon sequestration.
 The land is managed in forestry to encourage the growth of trees and the production of forest
goods. This frequently entails cultivating particular tree species that are best suited to the
local temperature and soil.

 Land in Industries: -In many different businesses, including manufacturing, energy

generation, and mining, the land is essential. The land is used by companies to produce goods
and services. The fact that land is frequently regarded as one of the most valuable assets for
investment and development speaks volumes about how important it is to various businesses.

The land is utilized in manufacturing to construct factories, storage facilities, and other
structures required for the creation of goods. The success of manufacturing operations
depends heavily on the availability of adequate land, which is frequently close to existing
transportation infrastructure. In addition, a lot of manufacturing processes need a lot of space
for product distribution and storage.

The land is used in the energy industry to build power plants, wind turbines, and other
structures that generate electricity. In many cases, the land is also used for the extraction of
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Since it gives access to the resources required
for energy production, the availability of adequate land is essential for the success of these
operations.

The land is used in mining to extract resources, such as coal, oil, and precious metals. Since
it offers access to the resources required for production, the availability of sufficient land is
essential for the success of these operations. The quantity and quality of the land that is
utilized for mining can also have a big effect on how profitable these operations are.

 Land in Infrastructure: - For the construction of infrastructure, such as communication,

housing, and transportation, the land is a crucial resource. Infrastructure offers the
fundamental amenities and services needed to support daily activities and raise the quality
of life.

In transportation infrastructure, the land is used for the construction of roads, bridges,
airports, and other facilities that support the movement of people and goods. Since it offers
access to the transportation infrastructure required for the effective movement of people and
products, the availability of sufficient land is essential for the success of these operations.

The land is utilized in the building of satellites, communication towers, and other structures
that support communication and information sharing. The success of these operations
depends on the availability of adequate land since it enables access to the communication
infrastructure required for the sharing of knowledge and ideas.

The land is utilized in housing infrastructure to build both residential and commercial
properties. The viability of these operations depends on the availability of adequate land
since it allows access to the housing infrastructure needed for people to live and work.
Land Degradation

Definition

A variety of factors, such as extreme weather conditions and situations like drought,
contribute to land degradation. Additionally, human activities that harm or degrade soil quality
and land utility are contributing factors in land degradation.

By reducing deforestation, irrigation, urban sprawl, mining and quarrying, agricultural

intensification, and land reclamation, it is possible to stop the degradation of the land with time.

Land Degradation is a process where the value and productivity of land are reduced due to
human activities. It can be defined as the reduction and loss of fertility of the land and the quality
of its soil due to human activities. For instance, land degradation majorly affects agriculture and
food security as soil erosion, and pollution can make it difficult to grow healthy crops.

Causes of Land Degradation

Some Important causes for Land Degradation:

 Drought
 Soil Erosion
 Soil pollution
 Overgrazing
 Deforestation
 Repeated extraction of minerals from the soil.

Control Measures against Land Degradation

Some control measures that can help against Land Degradation:

 Controlling mining activities.

 Planting sheltering belts for plants.
 Afforestation and proper management of grazing lands to prevent overgrazing

What is Soil?

Technically, the soil is a mixture that contains minerals, organic matter, and living organisms. But
broadly speaking, soil can refer to any loose sediment. Moreover, there are many types of soil that
are distributed around the world and these are generally classified into the following:
 1. Clay Soil
2. Sandy soil
3. Loamy Soil
4. Silt Soil
Typically, the soil consists of 45% minerals, 50% empty spaces or voids and 5% organic matter.
Furthermore, soil performs many important functions such as:

1. Providing a growth medium for the plants

2. Acts a modifier of the earth’s atmosphere
3. One of the most crucial components of the biosphere
4. Provides habitat for organisms
Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in a
continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

What is Soil Erosion?

In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers, streams
or far away lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture and
deforestation.

Cause of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are
caused by rainfall:

The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and rivers.
Regions with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing water
during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

Agriculture

The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb the
ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of the crops
are grown during the spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the soil is eroded
during winters.

Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water. Fine soil
particles are eroded by wind.

Grazing

The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their hooves
churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and makes it more
prone to erosion.

Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil firmly.
The canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects the soil
from erosion, is also lost during logging.

Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.

Construction

The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands are
cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion activity.

Heavy Winds

During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by the
wind to faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.
Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients
required by the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads
to low crop productivity.

Clogging of Waterways

The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals. This
pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.

The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in flooding.

Air Pollution

The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic substances such as
pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from the arid
and semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.

Desertification

Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into deserts.
Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to loss of
biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.

Soil Erosion Prevention

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb this problem.
Following are some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

1. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

2. Add mulch (made from tree bark, wood chips, pine straws, leaves etc.) and rocks to prevent
the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.
3. Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on slopes.
4. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.
5. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.
 6. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into
proper water collecting systems
7. Terrace farming can be done to reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.
8. Intercropping can help in soil erosion as in different seasons crops are grown which
protects the soil from rain wash.

Desertification

Desertification is the process by which vegetation in drylands i.e. arid and semi-arid lands,
such as grasslands or shrublands, decreases and eventually disappears. The concept does not
refer to the physical expansion of existing deserts, but to the various processes that threaten to turn
currently non-desert ecosystems into deserts.

Human activities, including deforestation and the overexploitation of aquifers, accelerate

desertification. The effects of climate change, which is also driven by humans, and the destruction
it causes in the form of extreme weather phenomena such as droughts, hurricanes, fires, etc. must
be added to this.

According to the UN, more than 24 billion tonnes of fertile soil disappear every year. In fact,
today two-thirds of the Earth is undergoing a process of desertification and, if no action is
taken, 1.5 million km2 of agricultural land, an area equivalent to the entire arable land of India,
which is essential for maintaining biodiversity and feeding the population, will be lost by 2050.

Causes of desertification

The main human activities driving desertification are:

 Deforestation, causes of which go beyond tree felling, which increases the risk of fires,
among others.
 Poor agricultural practices, from not rotating crops to unprotected soils or chemical fertilizer
and pesticide use, etc.
 Overexploitation of natural resources as a consequence, for example, of irresponsible
management of vegetation or water.
 Bad livestock practices, such as overgrazing, which severely erode the land and prevent the
regeneration of vegetation.
Conservation Measures of Land or Control of Land Degradation:
Land degradation refers to the deterioration or loss of fertility or productive capacity of the soil.
The factors which are responsible for land degradation or the depletion of mineral content of the
top layer of the land (soil) or damage it is given below.

 Soil erosion
 Shifting cultivation
 Soil pollution
 Desertification
 Salination and water logging
 Urbanization

Soil fertility can be increased or the land degradation can be reduced by adopting the following:

(a) Use of Manures and Fertilizers :

The substances which are added to the soil fertility for accelerating and sustaining plant growth,
are called manures. They increase soil fertility either directly by supplying necessary elements of
or indirectly by their action on other substances to make them suitable for absorption. The manures
are of two types, viz., organic and inorganic. The organic manures also called natural manures are
produced from decomposed plant material, animal matter such as blood, bones, wool, horns, etc.
and excrete of animals. The inorganic manures are called fertilizers. These are of two types viz..
chemical fertilizers which have simple chemical inorganic composition such as phosphates,
nitrates sulphates etc., and biofertilizers which are microorganisms and their products unitized to
increase fertility of soil.
(b) Crop Rotation:
It is the alternate planning of crop plants with leguminous plants. It keeps up the soil fertility,
enriches organic contents and microbial population of the soil, and also checks the soil erosion.
Deep rooted crops should be rotated with shallow rooted ones that nutrients of all the levels in the
soil are evenly absorbed.
(c) Control of Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion is the detachment and removal of the top soil which has the highest fertility. It is
caused by wind, rainwater, sloping of the soil and deforestation. Generally following steps are
taken to prevent soil erosion.
1. Contour Ploughing: It is done on sloping land. In this method ploughing is done across the
slope where each furrow acts as a small dam to hold water & check flow.
2. Terracing: Terracing is done on steep slopping field retard the speed of flowing water. In this
the long steep slope is divided into several flat steps. Drainage and ditches are dug at the base of
each step to conduct and slow down the flow of water.
3. Strip Cropping: In this method broad alternate strip of titled and untitled soil are prepared on
the contour of slope. On broad titled soil rows crops are grown and on untitled soil grass or wheat
is grown. Untitled soil thus prevent washing away of soil from titled portion.

(d) Afforestation and Reforestation:

Afforestation means growing forests where there were no forests before, may be due to lack of
seed trees or adverse factors.
Reforestation means replanting forests at places where they were destroyed by overgrazing,
excessive felling, forest fires etc. At such places natural regeneration is not possible and artificial
planting of trees is necessary. Restoring forests helps to check soil erosion, floods and water
logging.

(e) Planting Wind Breaks and Shelter Belts:

To check the velocity of wind, two or more rows of tall trees are planted at right angles to the
direction of the prevailing winds. These winds break, check the movement of wind and therefore.
check soil erosion.
Wasteland
A wasteland is someplace that's empty and desolate, with no sign of life or growth. An area may
be a wasteland because of toxic materials in the soil, or due to climate conditions like strong winds.

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Conservation of resources means the management of human sources so that it may give maximum
benefit to present.
generation, while maintaining its potential to meet the requirements of the future generations.
Thus, there is a strong need to conserve these natural resources. Environment belongs to each one
of us and all of us have a responsibility to contribute towards its conservation and protection.
An individual can contribute in conservation of natural resources in the following ways:

(1) Water Conservation:

1. Don't keep water taps running.

2. Install water-saving toilets that use not more than 4 litres per flush.
3. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
4. Use drip irrigation and sprinkling irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce
evaporation.
5. Install a small system to capture rain water and collect normally wasted used water from sinks,
cloth-washed, bath-tub etc. which can be used for watering the plants.
6. Build rain water harvesting system in your house.
7. Continuous running of water taps should be avoided while brushing, shaving, washing or
bathing.
(2) Energy Conservation :

1. Turn off light, fans and other appliances when not in use.
2. Use solar cooker for cooking your food on sunny days which will be more nutritious and will
cut down on your LPG expenses.
3. Grow deciduous tree and climbers at proper places outside your houses to cut-off intense heat
of summer and get a cool breeze and shade.
4. Use public transportations whenever possible.
5. Recycle and reuse glass, metal and paper.
6. Build your house with provision for sunspace to keep the house well-lit and to save electricity.
7. Instead of using the heat converter more often wear adequate woolen clothes during winter.

(3)Energy conservation in industries:

1. Waste should be minimized as possible.

2. Non-productive period should be minimised.
3. Replace old equipment and machines having less efficiency by new more efficient machines.
4. Improve thermal insulation and electrical insulation.
5. To recover heat again, use proper method.
6. Discussion and training programmes should be arranged about the conservation of energy with
employees so that they can realise the need of conservation and also find out easy method for it.
7. To keep watch over energy utilization such information should be entered in the yearly report
of plant.

(4) Soil Conservation :

1. While constructing your house, don't uproot the trees as far as possible.

2. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden.

3. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen garden.

4. Use sprinkling irrigation. Avoid strong flow of water to irrigate lawn and plants.

5. Use green manure and mulch in the garden which will protect the soil.

6. Do not over-irrigate your fields without proper drainage to prevent water logging and
salinisation.

7. Use mixed cropping so that some specific soil nutrients do not get depleted.

8. Crop residues should be incorporated in the soil by ploughing instead of burning it in the field.