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Frugal AI: Introduction, Concepts, Development and Open Questions

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 Frugal AI: Introduction, Concepts,
Development and Open Questions
Ludovic Arga∗, François Bélorgey, Arnaud Braud, Romain Carbou, Nathalie
Charbonniaud, Catherine Colomes, Lionel Delphin-Poulat, David Excoffier, Christel
Fauché, Thomas George, Frédéric Guyard, Thomas Hassan, Quentin Lampin,
Vincent Lemaire, Pierre Nodet, Pawel Piotrowski, Krzysztof Sapiejewski, Emilie
Sirvent-Hien, Tamara Tosic

Orange Innovation

April 21, 2025

Abstract
This document aims to provide an overview and synopsis of frugal AI,
with a particular focus on its role in promoting cost-effective and sus-
tainable innovation in the context of limited resources. It discusses the
environmental impact of AI technologies and the importance of optimis-
ing AI systems for efficiency and accessibility. It explains the interface
between AI, sustainability and innovation. In fourteen sections, it also
makes interested readers aware of various research topics related to frugal
AI, raises open questions for further exploration, and provides pointers
and references.

∗ (authors alphabetical order, contact: [email protected])

1
Contents
1 Introduction about this document 4

2 Context and definition 6

2.1 What is an AI system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Defining AI in the context of frugality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Frugality versus efficiency in the context of artificial intelligence . 9

3 What is the environmental footprint of AI 13

3.1 Overview of AI’s Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Generative AI’s Ecological Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Rebound Effects and Potential Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 Usage perceptions of AI 15
4.1 The concept of artificial intelligence is well known in public opinion 15
4.2 A growing media presence, but still below the major topics of
society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 What are the usages of generative AI? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4 Benefits and threats: a clear apprehension by respondents . . . . 18
4.5 A nuanced debate on the part of civil society, and polarized by
actors in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.6 A polarization of the debate that is detrimental to thinking . . . 21

5 Economic forecasts: AI and Frugal AI 23

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 The Supply Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3 The Demand Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.4 AI vs Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.5 Conception vs. Run Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6 Planet Boundaries - On AI development and energy resources 28

6.1 Growth in the use of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.2 Electricity resources required to operate the AI, needed to sustain
AI growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

7 Use the right AI for the right need at the right time 32
7.1 Introduction - Life cycle of an AI system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.2 Finding the right inflection point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3 Illustration on sentiment analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

8 Assessment of environmental footprint of AI 36

8.1 Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.2 Energy consumption: challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.3 Energy Consumption Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2
 8.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9 Acculturation 41

10 Standardizations 43

11 Toward Frugal AI inspired by Nature 44

12 AI Embedded on devices 46
12.1 Current State of Hardware for Frugal AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
12.2 Dedicated AI Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
12.3 Future Trends in Hardware for Frugal AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

13 AI optimizations 57
13.1 Model Compression Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.2 Hardware Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
13.3 Algorithmic Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13.4 Deployment Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
13.5 Data efficiency methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

14 Open Questions 68
14.1 Does reusability make AI frugal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.2 Does fine-tuning make AI frugal ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
14.3 Does making an AI sparse make it frugal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
14.4 Should AI be resource-aware to be frugal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
14.5 How to explore effective strategies to circumvent the potential
pitfalls of the rebound effect? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
14.6 What social usages could bring to the frugal AI questioning? . . 72
14.7 Frugal AI as a desirable side-effect of resource-constrained inno-
vation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.8 Will advancing learning theory result in more frugal AI models? 72
14.9 Can complex scalable systems be conceived as Frugal by design? 73
14.10 Will very large generative AIs (LLMs) and their uses one day
become frugal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
14.11 Are there ways of thinking about the future of AI in a constrained
environment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
14.12 What could be frugal telecom network automation? . . . . . . . 75
14.13 Is semantic communication a means to frugal Agentic commu-
nications? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
14.14 Other questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3
1 Introduction about this document
Authors (alphabetical order): Nathalie Charbonniaud, Krzysztof Sa-
piejewski, Vincent Lemaire

About this document - The objective of this document is to provide a pre-

liminary synopsis of frugal AI, with a particular emphasis on its role in fostering
cost-effective and sustainable innovation in the context of limited resources. It
discusses the environmental impact of AI technologies and the importance of op-
timising AI systems for efficiency and accessibility. The authors do not pretend
to cover all the aspects of frugal AI but give understanding in the intersection
of AI, sustainability, and innovation. The document aims to raise awareness of
interested readers about various related topics, poses open questions for further
exploration in the field of frugal AI, provides some pointers and references. The
different sections have been written independently so that the reader can read
only one part without reading the full document. As a result, there is potential
redundancy between some of the sections presented.

Frugal AI is at the intersection of 4 domains: the economy, the technology,

the society, and climate change. The figure 1 below introduces, as a snapshot,
the main concepts that will be detailed in the document.

Figure 1: Frugal AI: what impact and what solutions for the environment?

The document delineates the notion of frugal AI, highlighting its capacity for
cost-effective and sustainable innovation in resource-constrained environments.
It emphasises the environmental impact of AI technologies and the necessity for
optimising AI systems to reduce their ecological footprint. The document goes
on to explore a variety of strategies for achieving frugality in AI, including the

4
right usage of AI, model compression, hardware optimization, and the impor-
tance of resource-aware AI design. The document also poses a series of research
questions to stimulate further investigation into the implications of frugal AI
across economic, social, and environmental domains.

Introduction - Generative AI, the latest digital revolution, is transform-

ing the way we use digital technology in our daily lives and is also highlighting
fundamental issues such as responsibility, safety, and ethics. However, the en-
vironmental footprint of digital technology is often overlooked, even though it
already accounts for nearly 4% of global greenhouse gas emissions. With the
rise of artificial intelligence, this footprint will increase, putting pressure on vital
resources such as electricity and water in certain regions of the world. Faced
with this dilemma, the concept of frugal AI is emerging. It questions the tension
between the unbridled development of artificial intelligence and the planetary
limits we keep pushing.
In the past, frugal innovation was a strategy suitable only for low-income
countries where there were severe resource constraints. However, raising barriers
to recent innovation thinking makes frugal innovation best suited to all levels of
a nation’s development. The word “frugal” is a well-known definition for being
thrifty or economical. But when frugal modifies innovation, its acronym should
be parsed as follows: functional, robust, user-friendly, growing, affordable, and
local [Gov22].
Frugal Innovation is an opportunity to innovate cost-effectively and sustain-
ably under resource scarcity. Like the poet Charles Baudelaire, who said of
poetry that "because the form is constrained, the idea springs forth more in-
tensely", we propose to ask ourselves: what innovative ideas are emerging or
will emerge from these constraints?

5
2 Context and definition

Contents
2.1 What is an AI system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Defining AI in the context of frugality . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Frugality versus efficiency in the context of artifi-
cial intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Authors (alphabetical order): Nathalie Charbonniaud, Christel

Fauché, Krzysztof Sapiejewski, Emilie Sirvent-Hien, Tamara Tosic

2.1 What is an AI system

Understanding artificial intelligence is the first step towards understanding the
concept of frugal AI. Here are the main definitions:

• AI system [EU AI Act Article 31 ] is a machine-based framework with

varying levels of autonomy. It can be adapted to achieve explicit or im-
plicit goals. The system processes the current input data and produces
the outcome result (i.e., detection, prediction, content generation or rec-
ommendation) that can influence physical or virtual environments.
• AI Expert system [ISO/IEC 229892 ]: AI system that accumulates, com-
bines and encapsulates knowledge provided by a human expert or experts
in a specific domain to infer solutions to problems.

• As AI is widely used in social debates, the social definition of AI today

takes an important place. Will Heaven in the MIT Technology Review
defines it as a catch-all word: "AI is a catch-all term for a set of technolo-
gies that make computers do things that are thought to require intelligence
when done by people." [Hea24a]. We can follow Hubert Guillaud in his
attempt to define AI as the set of techniques that stand between lab re-
search and widespread usages [Gui24]. In 2025, AI is identified as LLMs
(Large Language Models), but before this, AI was used to describe image
recognition. Beyond the ambiguity of the term that covers both a field of
computer science, but also techniques that articulate models on data, Alex
Bender and Emily Hanna also point out that artificial intelligence comes
with “magic” and could be omniscient and all-powerful [HB24a]. In addi-
tion, the human anthropomorphizes the machine, that is to say, attributes
it an intention [CC22]. This is especially the case for AI methods that use
language models. It is therefore important to educate populations to keep
critical thinking in AI usages, to avoid replacing prompts for questions
and feedback for answers.
1 https://artificialintelligenceact.eu/article/3/
2 https://www.iso.org/fr/standard/74296.html

6
2.2 Defining AI in the context of frugality
Artificial intelligence (AI) in the context of frugal innovation refers to the use of
intelligent technologies to develop cost-effective, efficient, and resource-conscious
solutions. AI enables systems to learn from data, automate processes, and
make informed decisions, often with minimal human intervention. In frugal
innovation, AI is applied to create solutions that are accessible, affordable, and
adaptable to resource-constrained environments. In essence, frugal innovation
seeks to develop high-value solutions using minimal resources.
By leveraging optimization techniques, AI can function effectively within
the constraints of limited infrastructure, making it an indispensable tool in con-
texts where conventional approaches may be impractical. As [Gov22] highlights,
frugal innovation can be significantly enhanced by technological advancements.
Citing [ZN03], Govindan asserts that AI holds a distinct advantage over other
technologies in fostering frugal innovation. Additionally, Govindan references
[Wri]’s argument that AI-driven improvements in frugal innovation can con-
tribute to a company’s growth. These perspectives support the central question
explored in Govindan’s research: What is the significance of integrating AI into
sustainable frugal innovation?
Despite its potential, the integration of AI into sustainable frugal innovation
presents several challenges. Entrepreneurs and organizations often face difficul-
ties in aligning AI-driven solutions with sustainable innovation strategies. As
noted by [Gov22], understanding the critical success factors (CSFs) for AI
implementation is essential for overcoming these barriers. This paper raises two
fundamental questions: What are the common drivers for AI implementation
in sustainable frugal innovation? and Which of these factors exert the most
significant influence?
Govindan’s study identifies “understanding the concept of AI” and “level of
AI investment” as the two most influential success factors for AI adoption in
sustainable frugal innovation [Gov22]. These factors are critical in determining
how industries can integrate AI-driven solutions to enhance their business com-
petitiveness, particularly in times of disruption [Gov22]. The study suggests
that by addressing these key factors, businesses can maximize AI’s potential in
fostering cost-effective, scalable, and sustainable innovation.
To ensure the successful integration of AI into sustainable frugal innova-
tion, [Gov22] emphasizes the need for targeted strategies aimed at strengthen-
ing these key success factors. The study highlights that industries must develop
specific practices to facilitate AI adoption. One of the most effective approaches,
according to [Gov22], is providing structured training for employees and top-
level management. This can be achieved through participation in workshops
and seminars, as well as engaging with technical literature on AI applications
in sustainable frugal innovation. Such initiatives enhance decision-making by
improving organizational understanding of AI’s role in resource-efficient inno-
vation.
By fostering AI literacy and ensuring strategic investments, industries can
unlock the full potential of AI-driven frugal innovation. As [Gov22] suggests,

7
a well-informed approach to AI integration can contribute to long-term sus-
tainability and resilience, enabling businesses to thrive in increasingly resource-
conscious environments. The ongoing exploration of AI’s role in frugal innova-
tion will therefore remain critical for industries seeking to maintain competi-
tiveness while addressing global sustainability challenges.

2.2.1 Frugal Artificial Intelligence (FAI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become increasingly sophisticated, with machine
learning (ML) models achieving higher accuracy in various applications. How-
ever, this progress often comes at a significant computational and environmen-
tal cost. The development and deployment of AI models require extensive data
preprocessing, substantial computing resources, considerable energy consump-
tion, and in consequence, CO2 footprint of the training process, raising con-
cerns about sustainability and accessibility [KWG+ 23]. In response to these
challenges, the concept of Frugal Artificial Intelligence (FAI) has emerged as a
framework aimed at reducing AI’s resource dependency while maintaining its
effectiveness. As [KWG+ 23] stated, "Here, frugality can concern (this list is not
exhaustive):
1. Reduction of data size, i.e., minimization of dataset(s) used in training,
while preserving model accuracy.
2. Making AI eco-friendly, by reducing the energy involved in model training
and use.
3. Minimization of needed resources, i.e., memory and/or processing/battery
power."

2.2.2 Key principles of FAI

1. Efficiency: Frugal AI solutions prioritize efficiency in terms of both com-
putation and energy consumption. This may involve designing algorithms
that can run on inexpensive hardware or optimizing code to minimize
resource usage.
2. Affordability: Frugal AI aims to make AI technologies accessible to a wide
range of users, regardless of their financial resources. This may involve
reducing the cost of hardware, software, and infrastructure required for
AI implementation.
3. Simplicity: Frugal AI solutions often prioritize simplicity and ease of use
over complexity. This may involve using simpler algorithms or user inter-
faces that require less training and technical expertise to operate.
4. Scalability: Frugal AI solutions should be scalable, allowing them to adapt
to different contexts and user needs without significantly increasing costs.
This may involve designing modular architectures that can be easily ex-
panded or customized as needed.

8
2.2.3 Ways to make AI frugal
To build frugal AI methods by design, as a society, we should consider these
key points, discussed in more details in the next sections:
• understand the impact that AI has on our planet and society (see Sections
3, 6, 9),
• apply eco-design of AI (see Section 8),
• understand the alternative setups with limited resources (see Sections 12,
13, and 11),
• conceive our AI for current needs and usages (final training model and its
intermediate steps),
• apply recommendations, specifications and regulations (see Sections 10,
7).

2.3 Frugality versus efficiency in the context of artificial

intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved through various paradigms, each offering
distinct approaches to solving problems. As AI technologies advance, two key
concepts - frugality and efficiency - have emerged as critical considerations in
both research and practical applications. Although these terms may seem simi-
lar, they encapsulate different principles in the design and deployment of AI
systems. In this chapter, we explore these differences in detail.

2.3.1 Defining Efficiency in AI

In the context of AI, efficiency generally refers to the optimal use of resources
to achieve a specific performance goal. Key aspects include:
1. Computational Efficiency: This involves minimizing the amount of time,
memory, or energy required to execute an algorithm. Efficient AI systems
perform tasks faster and with fewer computational resources.
2. Algorithmic Efficiency: Here, the focus is on designing algorithms that
achieve high accuracy and performance while operating within acceptable
resource limits. For example, an efficient algorithm might deliver accuracy
similar to that of a more complex one but with lower computational costs.
3. Operational Efficiency: This can include aspects such as scalability (the
ability to handle increasing amounts of work) and cost-effectiveness during
deployment. In many cases, efficiency improvements are measured by the
trade-off between output quality and resource input.
In summary, efficiency in AI is largely about optimization - making sure that
every computational resource (whether it be time, energy, or memory) is used
to its fullest potential to achieve the desired outcomes.

9
2.3.2 Understanding Frugality in AI
While efficiency focuses on optimal resource utilization, frugality embodies a
broader philosophy. It goes beyond mere optimization to encompass the de-
sign of AI systems that are inherently resource-conscious from the outset. Key
characteristics of frugality include:
1. Minimalism in Design: Frugal AI systems are built with the principle of
“less is more.” This means they are designed to function effectively with
minimal resources, avoiding unnecessary complexity.
2. Accessibility and Affordability: Frugality emphasizes creating AI solutions
that are accessible in resource-constrained environments. This is particu-
larly important for applications in developing regions or for organizations
with limited budgets.
3. Sustainable Innovation: Frugal AI takes into account long-term sustaina-
bility. It aims to reduce environmental impacts by minimizing energy
consumption and promoting the use of available resources wisely.
4. Context-Aware Development: In frugal innovation, the design process be-
gins with a clear understanding of the specific resource constraints and
needs of the target environment. This can lead to novel, context-specific
approaches that differ from traditional, resource-intensive AI models.
Thus, while efficiency is about optimizing existing processes, frugality is a
proactive strategy. It involves designing full AI systems to operate under strict
resource constraints, often resulting in solutions that are both cost-effective and
sustainable.

2.3.3 Terminology: Frugality, Efficiency, and Related Concepts

In the literature, several terms are used interchangeably to describe aspects of
resource management in AI. Understanding these terms can help clarify the
distinction between frugality and efficiency:
1. Lean AI: Borrowed from lean manufacturing principles, lean AI empha-
sizes minimizing waste and unnecessary complexity. This concept aligns
closely with frugality, as it promotes the development of streamlined,
purpose-built systems.
2. Sustainable AI: Sustainable AI focuses on reducing the environmental foot-
print of AI systems, including energy consumption and electronic waste.
This concept is an important aspect of frugality, though it also overlaps
with efficiency when considering operational costs.
3. Green AI*: The term Green AI [SDSE19] refers3 to AI research that yields
novel results without increasing computational cost, and ideally reducing
3 Subsequently, the term has evolved in meaning and sometimes also refers to AIs designed

to optimise environmental impact.

10
 it. Whereas Red AI has resulted in rapidly escalating computational (and
thus carbon) costs, Green AI has the opposite effect. If measures of ef-
ficiency are widely accepted as important evaluation metrics for research
alongside accuracy, then researchers will have the option of focusing on the
efficiency of their models with positive impact on both the environment
and inclusiveness.
4. Responsible AI*: Responsible Artificial Intelligence (Responsible AI) is
an approach4 to developing, assessing, and deploying AI systems in a safe,
trustworthy, and ethical way and promoting positive outcome.

* Note: These terms are very commonly used, although they are not really defined in the
standards.

2.3.4 Distinguishing Frugality from Efficiency in AI

While these terms share common ground, they differ in scope and emphasis.
They represent different approaches:

1. Focus and Intent:

• Efficiency focuses on optimizing performance metrics (such as speed,
accuracy, and energy usage) within a given framework. The goal is
to maximize output for any fixed level of resource input.
• Frugality emphasizes a minimalistic design philosophy. It starts
with the assumption that resources are scarce and seeks to develop
solutions that are inherently low-cost and sustainable, rather than
simply optimizing existing processes.
2. Design Versus Optimization:
• Efficiency improvements are often applied as optimizations to exist-
ing systems, such as refining algorithms or reducing computational
overhead.
• Frugal innovation involves rethinking the system from the ground
up, incorporating resource constraints into the design process itself.
This can lead to entirely new approaches that differ from traditional
methods.
3. Context and Application:

• Efficiency is a universal goal across many fields of AI, regardless of

the operating environment.

4 Sometimes positioned differently in French (the right solution for the right need) mainly

because of the difference in meaning of the word “responsible” in English and “responsible”
in French.

11
 • Frugality is particularly relevant in contexts where resource limita-
tions are a fundamental constraint, such as in developing regions or in
applications with strict energy budgets. Frugal AI is not just about
doing more with less, but about designing accessible and sustainable
methods over the long term.

In essence, while both concepts value resource conservation, efficiency is

about doing things better, and frugality is about doing things differently, with
a focus on simplicity, accessibility, and sustainability.

12
3 What is the environmental footprint of AI

Contents
3.1 Overview of AI’s Environmental Impact . . . . . 13
3.2 Generative AI’s Ecological Impact . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Rebound Effects and Potential Benefits . . . . . . 14

Authors (alphabetical order): Arnaud Braud, Nathalie Charbon-

niaud, Catherine Colomes

In 2023, greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions due to the digital domain repre-
sented nearly 4% of the global GHG emissions. Shortly, this contribution will
be doubled due to IA expansion. One knows that AI is water and power-greedy
at least, which gives it a major role in the GHG emissions increase of the digital
sector. Here is an overview of the environmental impact of IA.

3.1 Overview of AI’s Environmental Impact

AI technologies span across a vast landscape of use cases and models, ranging
from simple regressors to large reasoning models. It is, as such, natural that
their impact has a vast range across use cases. [DCL+ 25] has shown that the
consumption of AI use cases ranges from 3.46 × 10−8 kWh for a tabular model
to 9.58 × 10−2 kWh for a large agentic model. This gap in consumption in
inference leads to vast differences in impacts, and where in the lifecycle they
happen, with larger models having a much higher impact at inference time.
This growth has heavily impacted data centers, US data centers produced 105
million tons CO2 eq in the past year with a carbon intensity 48% higher than
the national average [GDG+ 24]. Their impact is not limited to CO2 and key
environmental indicators include:
• Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. The energy used to run the servers
and build the server components emits GHG. Those GHG emissions are
measured as an equivalent mass of CO2 : for any gas, it is the equivalent
mass of CO2 that has the same global warming potential as the mass of
that gas, it is measured in kgCO2 eq.
• Abiotic Resources Consumption. These are the metallic and mineral re-
sources needed to manufacture all the hardware to run AI and store the
data. The depletion of resources is measured as the equivalent mass of
antimony.
• Water consumption. Water is mainly consumed during the hardware
manufacturing process and during server runs to cool them.

13
3.2 Generative AI’s Ecological Impact
Generative AI exacerbates the environmental footprint of digital technologies
across all life-cycle stages (manufacturing, distribution, use, and disposal). It
consumes more electricity and resources than traditional AI tasks:

• Energy Consumption: AI’s energy footprint depends on factors like data

center location, energy mix, model complexity, and training duration. The
growing demand for AI also stresses power grid infrastructure, with trans-
former supply struggling to meet demand.[Dem] US data centers already
consume more than 4% of US demand [GDG+ 24], a figure expected to
rise sharply.

• Water Consumption: AI systems consume water for cooling servers and

generating electricity. For example, 20-50 ChatGPT requests use 500 ml
of water. By 2027, AI-related water demand could reach 6.6 billion cubic
meters annually. Water usage varies by location, with some data centers
being more water-efficient than others. [Ren23]

• Pollution and Biodiversity: Data center construction and operation con-

tribute to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. Concrete, a key ma-
terial in DCs, is a major source of GHG emissions and requires significant
amounts of sand, leading to environmental degradation. [Rab23]
• Electronic Chips: Manufacturing chips for AI systems is resource-intensive,
involving rare metals, pure water, and energy. Embedded AI, which pro-
cesses data locally on devices, offers a more sustainable alternative by
reducing reliance on cloud infrastructure. [Zhu24]

3.3 Rebound Effects and Potential Benefits

AI’s ease of use can lead to rebound effects, where increased usage offsets envi-
ronmental benefits. For example, AI can optimize fossil fuel extraction, inad-
vertently increasing CO2 emissions. Additionally, the demand for new digital
infrastructure and consumer attraction to innovation accelerates resource con-
sumption and obsolescence.
However, AI also holds potential for reducing environmental footprints [MTB25]:

• Directly: AI can monitor air quality, optimize agriculture, and simulate

climate scenarios.
• Indirectly: AI improves energy efficiency in transportation, building mana-
gement, and energy distribution.

14
4 Usage perceptions of AI
Authors (alphabetical order): Catherine Colomes, Christel Fauché

Contents
4.1 The concept of artificial intelligence is well known
in public opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 A growing media presence, but still below the ma-
jor topics of society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 What are the usages of generative AI? . . . . . . 17
4.4 Benefits and threats: a clear apprehension by re-
spondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 A nuanced debate on the part of civil society, and
polarized by actors in the field . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.6 A polarization of the debate that is detrimental
to thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Developing a frugal artificial intelligence is a matter of technical optimiza-

tion but also of choice on the informed use of artificial intelligence, case by
case. Artificial intelligence should only be used in cases where it is the best
technique to use (compared to the others) but also because the intended use is
useful, beneficial, expected by the society in which it is deployed and because
the adverse effects of this use would be minimized and less than the beneficial
effects. To enable this parsimonious and essential use of artificial intelligence,
we propose to look at how artificial intelligence is perceived by public opinion
by taking an interest in surveys that measure the awareness and use of gener-
ative artificial intelligence in France. The expectations, benefits, or fears that
respondents highlight will then be discussed. Finally, we will study how the
debate is articulated in French society.

4.1 The concept of artificial intelligence is well known in

public opinion
The analysis is mainly based on four general quantitative studies [fS24, fT24,
d’i25, fO24] and an open consultation with French citizens to suggest ideas for
a beneficial use of artificial intelligence5 [mak24].

The results of the studies may differ quite widely, but it is possible to see
that there is a strong awareness of the concept of artificial intelligence and gen-
erative artificial intelligence, although this is a very technical subject. And a
strong curiosity led the French people to try these tools.
5 This citizen consultation - What are your ideas for shaping AI to serve the public good –

was conducted by Make.org for Sciences Po, AIandSociety Institute (ENS-PSL), The Future
Society, CNum, as part of preparatory work for the Artificial Intelligence Action Summit, held
in Paris in February 2025.

15
On the other hand, these studies do not allow for the dissection of their under-
standing of artificial intelligence. It should also be noted that all studies are
conducted online6 .

The following tables summarize the answers of different studies on two ques-
tions: Do you know generative artificial intelligence, and have you already used
these tools?

4.1.1 Awareness of generative artificial intelligence

Study Question Results Comments

Viavoice Question asked without any 65% Yes Institute comment: «65% of the
for SSII explanation French have already heard about
(February generative artificial intelligence, a
2024) notoriety that remains, however
little built, only 22% of the French
see very well what it is»
IFOP for With explanation7 78% Yes Institute comment: “Generative
Talan AI is gaining notoriety among the
(May general public (78% have already
2024) heard of it this year compared to
71% in May 2023)”
Ipsos for Question: Do you know gen- 88% Yes
CESI erative AI tools?
(January
2025)

Table 1: Synthesise of studies results on awareness

A huge awareness of generative AI, even if what hides behind this awareness
cannot be analysed with those studies.

4.1.2 Use of generative AI tools

Study Question Results

Viavoice for Question: have you ever used a generative artificial 17% Yes for per-
SSII (February intelligence solution? sonal purpose -
2024) 19% Yes for pro-
fessional purpose
IFOP for Ta- Question: do you personally use generative AI tools 25% Yes
lan (May 2024)
Ipsos for CESI Question: do you use generative AI tools? 39% Yes
(January
2025)
IFOP for Or- Question: Have you ever asked some questions to a 48% Yes
ange - Sociovi- generative AI?
sion (2024)

Table 2: Synthesis of studies results on use

Awareness is not only a theoretical one, as more and more persons try these
tools. However the gap between awareness and usage is still huge.
6 The methods of collection for the Viavoice study are not specified.

16
4.2 A growing media presence, but still below the major
topics of society
The presence of the subject in the media sphere has grown strongly in recent
years, however, it is necessary to relativize the place that the subject occupies.
Indeed, a 10-year analysis of the place of the subject in traditional media8 (see
Figure 2) shows that while artificial intelligence is mentioned more and more
often, and especially since the introduction of ChatGPT on the market, this
presence remains relatively modest compared to other topics identified as con-
cerns of the French people, such as immigration, climate change or purchasing
power.

Figure 2: Topics mentioned in French media

4.3 What are the usages of generative AI?

As AI is a social definition regarding the latest technology on the market (see
Section 2), studies in 2024/2025 focus on generative AI.

8 Analysis from database ina[dl] on the keywords “artificial intelligence”, “climate”; “pur-

chasing power”, and “immigration”. The media analysed are: JT (Arte, France 2, France
3, M6, TF1), continuous information channels (6h-0h range of BFM TV, CNews, LCI, fran-
ceinfo, iTele), radio stations (6-10h range of Europe 1, France Culture, France Info, France
Inter, RMC, RTL, Sud Radio). Occurrences are counted as the number of rounds in which
the word was detected at least once by the IA. For example, if a word is said twice by the
same person without being cut off by another person, that word will be counted once. To
compensate for the disparity of time slots between media, the absolute values were indexed
by taking the value of the immigration theme in 2015 on each type of medium as a base 100.
An arithmetic average of the indices was then made.

17
 Beyond the awareness of the word and the concept or use, studies allow us
to identify what is the social acceptability of artificial intelligence itself and its
uses. The Sociovison study details the perceived usefulness of generative ar-
tificial intelligence tools. Two-thirds of the people who asked questions to AI
find it useful, and the younger they are, the more urban and high-income, the
more useful the use of AI is considered to be. In the professional field or for
students, the use of generative AI also seems to be beneficial. With the idea
of an assistant that saves time for low-added-value tasks or summarizing and
synthesizing information. The Ipsos-CESI study adds translation to these most
common uses. Other uses are emerging (for almost one-third of the people using
AI in their trade): acquiring or compensating for a lack of skills or even making
decisions.

AI is mostly seen as a human assistant, but with a significant impact on

society.

4.4 Benefits and threats: a clear apprehension by respon-

dents
There is no mention in the studies of the environmental impact of
artificial intelligence, either by energy consumption, by the construc-
tion of data centers, or by the manufacture of machines. This theme
is not offered to respondents. This makes it invisible. And since it
is not proposed, it is not commented on, and the question does not
feed into public debate. It is a general problem of the digital world
whose environmental impact is not very visible.

However, the citizen consultation (Make.org) identifies 5% of proposals to

raise awareness and reduce the environmental impact of artificial intelligence.
The proposals are around weighing up the benefits in terms of the environmen-
tal damage caused. Artificial intelligence can also be used to monitor and thus
prevent the risk of disasters or environmental degradation.

Also, the benefits and threats associated with the deployment of artificial
intelligence are more related to societal impacts. The themes concerning the
benefits and threats of artificial intelligence are fairly homogeneous between
studies. As these mainly deal with generative artificial intelligence, they focus
on this part of the technology. The quantitative surveys propose categories to
people who vote on a Likert scale, according to whether they agree with this
theme and its formulation. However, the open consultation on behalf of Sciences
Po, by make.org, allows spontaneous themes to emerge; It should be noted that
they are close to the themes assisted by quantitative studies.

The expected benefits are of several orders. First of all, we have seen above
a benefit to be assisted to perform tasks with low added value in their personal

18
(Viavoice) and professional (Viavoice, Sociovision) lives, and synthesize the in-
formation received in their professional life (Sociovision). But also, get advice
or help to solve a problem as a customer (SocioVision).
Security benefits are also seen: either to obtain reliable data (the first reported
benefit for respondents of the SocioVision study) or to secure navigation (by
blocking malicious content). Moreover, a more specific study on the use of arti-
ficial intelligence for the French administration shows that it is mainly expected
in the sectors of Defence, security and surveillance (44%,) to strengthen the fight
against social and tax fraud (51%), public security, and crime prevention (45%).

The respondents of the SocioVision study, expect as a benefit to have access

to reliable information; notwithstanding do they fear not having access to
this reliable information any more (75% - this is the highest percentage
among the different countries tested9 in this study, to note that none goes below
61%, except China, to 45%). This concern is also major in the ViaVoice study
for SII (83%) as the Ipsos-Cesi study (49%)10 . The latter also identifies a risk
of loss of discrimination between what is real or generated by AI (43%) and
even the use of false or unreliable data. Among the risks of using AI by the
administration, respondents from the Ifop/Acteurs public study point to the
risk of error of these AI.

The second threat, very strongly identified, is that of the decrease in con-
tacts between people (SocioVision), the dehumanization of social relations
either from a general point of view (ViaVoice) or in relations with the adminis-
tration (Ifop/ Acteurs Publics).

This nuanced vision of the integration of artificial intelligence in different

areas of personal and professional life leads respondents to prefer a deployment
framed by regulation enacted by public authorities. This is the case for 86% of
the French respondents in the SocioVision study (this rate is similar in all the
countries tested and ranges from 78% in Germany to 90% in China. Note that
the Americans approve of the need for regulation at 80%). The team11 ana-
lyzing the citizen consultation on Make.org explains this request: “Participants
reject any form of AI solutionism and uncontrolled deployments. Participants
9 Germany, Spain, Poland, United Kingdom, USA, China, Morocco, Egypt
10 The rates are very different between the ViaVoice study where the themes of concern
identified are all approved by a range between 63% and 83% of respondents (the question is:
in the future, do you fear that the rise of artificial intelligence .... do not allow the difference
between true and false in terms of information) and the Ipsos Cesi study, in which no concern
concerns more than 49% of respondents (the question is: In your opinion, what are the main
risks associated with the use of generative AI? among the proposals: The spread of false
information (fake news). It is not specified how many choices respondents could make.
11 Constance de Leusse, AI & Sociéty Institute (ENS-PSL) and SciencesPo Tech & Global

Affairs Innovation Hub; Nicolas Moës, The Future Society; Axel Dauchez, Make.org; Jean Cat-
tan, National Digital Council; Caroline Jeanmaire, The Future Society; Tereza Zoumpalova,
The Future Society; Alexis Prokopiev, Make.org;Marthe Nagels, Make.org; Victor Laymand,
Make.org; Pierre Noro, SciencesPo Tech & Global Affairs Innovation Hub; Mai Lynn Miller
Nguyen, The Future Society; Niki Iliadis, The Future Society; Jules Kuhn, Make.org

19
call for robust governance frameworks, both at the local and international levels,
to safeguard their rights and protect human agency. They are divided about
unchecked deployments of AI systems and reject the idea of leaving key deci-
sions to private companies”.

4.5 A nuanced debate on the part of civil society, and

polarized by actors in the field
Section 2 of this document shows that artificial intelligence remains a vague and
ambiguous concept. Using this notion to feed the public debate erases technical
expertise to put questions on the overall functioning of society. This has two
implications for public debate.

First of all, it facilitates the inclusion of the citizen in the debate. The
analysis of citizen consultation in France for the Action for AI summit, early
2025, allowed a first debate (approval/ rejection of proposals). The results show
that it is possible to have a fairly measured debate. For example, proposals
under the “Stop the AI” theme, which is a clear-cut position, are controversial
and received approval and rejection votes in roughly equal proportions12 .
The second consequence is the counterpart of this conflation. Indeed, the actors
of AI and especially the entrepreneurs of the Silicon Valley rely on the credibil-
ity that their knowledge of the subject gives them to take very global positions
on the future, such as the ones quoted by Heaven [Hea24b]:

• Marc Andreessen: “This has the potential to make life much better ... I
think it’s honestly a layup.
• Altman: “I hate to sound like a utopic tech bro here, but the increase in
quality of life that AI can deliver is extraordinary.”
• Pichai: “AI is the most profound technology that humanity is working on.
More profound than fire.”.

Making artificial intelligence a total tool highlights potential apocalyptic

risks for humanity. And focus the reflection on these existential risks instead
of facilitating a calm debate that would help to understand what companies
want to build as a future with this technology, causes opposition between
“accelerationists” (to accelerate deployment, seek it with the conviction that
the benefits will always be greater than the disadvantages) and the “catastro-
phists” (demanding a halt (or a moratorium) in the face of incalculable and
12 This consultation is not representative of the opinion of the French population; it does

not involve interviewees on each proposal or a representative sample, but people who have
voluntarily joined the consultation, Draft suggestions and, on the other hand, evaluate the
agreement or rejection of other suggestions made. The proposals judged are not exhaustive:
everyone chooses those on which he or she decides. Over 11,000 people participated.

20
existential risks for humanity).

Thus, this opposition prevents us from truly thinking about what AI is doing
to societies. Charlie Wazel is a journalist who investigated how the actors of the
Silicon Valley (here around OpenAI) present their work on artificial intelligence.
His article, published in July 2024 in The Atlantic, is entitled “AI has become
a technology of faith”. He writes: “In this framework, the AI people become
something like evangelists for a technology rooted in faith: Judge us not by
what you see, but by what we imagine [War24]” .

This prevents us from thinking about the concrete problems that are al-
ready there, and that the hope of the future cannot be sufficient to sweep
away [HB24b]. This also allows established actors to thwart regulatory projects:
“Thus, the big tech players are readily in favour of a desire for regulation that
would focus on the apocalyptic risks for humanity, coming from the innovations
of “frontier” and less on their own model [Bou23]”.

4.6 A polarization of the debate that is detrimental to

thinking
Many risks are well identified by citizens (see the perception of risks in the
various studies, described above), but some are invisible because they are not
proposed to respondents and therefore not taken into account in the analyses.
These include the environmental consequences of these technologies (see chapter
3) or the work of people who feed artificial intelligence or correct it [MC24].
The citizen consultation organized for the AI Action Summit allowed respon-
dents to contribute to the debate. On the other hand, in the context described of
a vague notion, totalizing or even considered as magical that oscillates between
vital necessity and apocalypse, the use of surveys to measure public percep-
tion is part of a process to work on social acceptability and not on democratic
reflection on the subject of artificial intelligence.
The presentations made in the studies or their analyses show that artificial
intelligence is obvious, which prevents us from thinking about it. This is what
Julien Falgas and Pascal Robert describe in The Conversation, taking up their
concept of “unthought of the digital [FR25]”. The studies that have been taken
up at the beginning of this chapter are part of this vision of an obvious, the
progress that constitutes artificial intelligence, and on the necessity that all
«start». The words used in the texts are directed to this objective.

• In the SocioVision study, the issue described that motivates the questions
around artificial intelligence is: “the issue: putting generative AI at the
service of progress for all.”

• Similarly, the IFOP-Talan study comments on the results as follows13 :

13 highlights are from the author

21
 – Generative AI is gaining notoriety,
– Their use remains minority but is making progress.
– Generative AI seems to be more democratized in working life.

• ViaVoice, for SII, comments on the results as follows: ViaVoice for SII:
“ Artificial intelligence solutions appreciated by insiders” and “due to
this still poorly knowledge, the rise of artificial intelligences worries the
majority of French people”
• Finally, EY draws up recommendations for public sector actors, based
on the study conducted by the Ifop) with the following assumption: “If
there is no longer any need to demonstrate the value of adopting
AI in the public sector, it is important to understand what are
the key success factors to have it adopted”. The recommendations
detail ways to build public confidence. The first is acculturation, the
next two are more technical, and finally, the last targets the necessary
regulation.

These various quotations are intended to show that the vocabulary used by
those who animate the debate is already marked by the solutions they wish
to push. And as the critic Guy Marcus, a champion of generative models but
promoter of more diverse artificial intelligence: “Neural network people have
this hammer, and now everything is a nail” says Marcus[Hea24b].
This chapter aims to understand the perception of artificial intelligence in
public opinion through quantitative studies (surveys) and propose a critical
reading. Indeed, surveying is not participation or debate. Then, the experts
re-appropriate the opinions expressed to propose policies that allow, as we have
just seen, finding the best ways to deploy artificial intelligence without neces-
sarily questioning society’s expectations and taking the risk of not analysing the
consequences of this deployment globally (forgetting precarious workers and the
environment, for example). But working with the public and civil society to
shape the intended use of artificial intelligence, rather than making it a matter
for experts, could only be beneficial in taking seriously the skills of people who
will be affected by this technology. Indeed, as suggested by the make.org consul-
tation team: “The public opinion demonstrates a sophisticated understanding
of AI. Participants are numerous and demonstrate nuanced and diverse opinions
of AI’s potential and risks. Despite the technical nature of the matter, the level
of awareness validates the importance of involving the public and civil society
in the governance of AI.

22
5 Economic forecasts: AI and Frugal AI

Contents
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 The Supply Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3 The Demand Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.4 AI vs Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.5 Conception vs. Run Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Authors (alphabetical order): Romain Carbou

5.1 Introduction
AI has become a central pillar of economic transformation. However, the debate
between energy-intensive AI models, and more efficient FAI (ie Frugal Artifi-
cial Intelligence) approaches continues to shape investment strategies, adoption
trends, and operational costs. Let’s examine the economic outlook for both
AI paradigms in the next five years, analyzing supply and demand dynamics,
labour market implications, and the way time-to-market constraints contribute
to bolster the not-always relevant all-LLM trend.

5.2 The Supply Side

The implementation of FAI depends largely on the economic conditions affecting
AI services. This includes factors such as industry investments, profitability
expectations, market consolidation, pricing strategies, and resource constraints.

5.2.1 Industry Investment

On the ground of profitability, the AI industry has witnessed significant cap-
ital inflows, yet many leading AI firms are operating at a significant loss to
gain market share. OpenAI epitomizes this situation, reportedly spending near
$700,000 per day to run ChatGPT [Eli23], at least over a certain period. Prof-
itability horizons remain thereby uncertain due to high operational costs. The
recent arrival of allegedly far more efficient challengers such as DeepSeek [Leg25]
brings in this landscape its own share of extra uncertainty. This exceptionally
competitive environment leads actors to deploy unusual efforts of persuasion to
depict AI-based services as an inexorable necessity calling for fast adoption.
Furthermore, given the enormous cost of developing and running LLMs,
market consolidation is expected in the coming years [Der24]. Larger tech firms
are acquiring AI startups to integrate new technologies quickly. This trend may
be logically expected to continue in the coming years as smaller firms struggle
to compete with industry giants. But some of the latter may still have to prove
they don’t stand on feet of clay, when cheaper competitors burst in the place.

23
5.2.2 Resource Constraints
Eventually, the constraint on resources can become a pivotal issue for the supply
side. AI models require vast computational resources, particularly GPUs and
energy. The demand for AI data center capacity is expected to triple by 2030
[Gro25]. This could create bottlenecks that impact pricing and access to AI
services, potentially increasing demand for more energy-efficient alternatives
(depending on the case, cheaper SLMs or -wherever applicable- pure FAI with
no generative capacities).

5.3 The Demand Side

The adoption of AI services varies among professionals and the general public.
While demand is growing, key barriers include cost concerns, model reliability,
and integration challenges.

5.3.1 Professional Adoption Trends

Regarding trends of the professional segment, enterprise adoption of AI is ac-
celerating, with surveys indicating that 65% of companies now use generative
AI regularly [Com24]. However, this adoption copes with two impedimenta.
First, LLMs, because of explainability and/or latency issues, simply cannot suit
every industrial or educational need, even where they are theoretically relevant.
Second, the cost of running LLMs without enough selectivity may sometimes
turn into OPEX explosions and encourage businesses to seek more efficient al-
ternatives. The way arbitration may take place will be discussed in sections
below.

5.3.2 Consumer Adoption Trends

For the consumer side, AI applications have grown rapidly, with ChatGPT
reaching 100 million users within two months of launch [Hu23]. Despite this,
cost pressures and the introduction of subscription fees may affect long-term
consumer adoption, especially in case of an economic downturn induced by
both Chinese [Lee25] and American [Sau25] contexts.

5.3.3 Cost-Effectiveness and Reliability

LLMs provide unparalleled flexibility but at a high cost per inference [HGSS24].
FAI, when applicable (namely, when the output does not call for a generative
approach implying a “decoding” part), offers an alternative with not only lower
operational expenses but sometimes greater accuracy and shorter latency, mak-
ing it attractive at different regards, and especially, but not only, for enterprises
with budget constraints.

24
5.4 AI vs Human
The economic impact of AI on the workforce is a crucial consideration. While
AI enhances productivity, concerns over job displacement persist.

5.4.1 Workforce Displacement

On the one hand, AI automation is projected to replace approximately 300 mil-
lion full-time jobs worldwide [Kel23] - not to mention the prominent example
of the Qingdao Port, already close to be an unmanned site fully automated
by a mix of AI technologies and 5G networks, achieving continuous records of
performance [Zey25]. On the other hand, new roles in AI development, over-
sight, and management are expected to emerge. The medium-term horizon of
this Schumpeterian scheme is at this stage highly unpredictable, given its polit-
ical “unthought” and the plausible limitations coming from energy and natural
resources.

5.4.2 Human Competitive Advantages

Despite AI advancements, human expertise remains critical in areas requiring
emotional intelligence, strategic planning, and interpersonal communication.
Yet, creativity should no longer be perceived as a human turf but rather as
a battlefield with local victories [Kin24], perennial or not. That said, not ignor-
ing the emerging “reasoning” capacities of cutting-edge LLMs, human induction
is probably not immediately threatened on the short term, especially when it
applies to the perception and the understanding of reality. Galileo stated the
law of uniform motion in purely counterfactual reasoning, without any statisti-
cal arsenal, and moreover never having been able to produce the experimental
vacuum. A constrained world may sharply foster these cognitive abilities.
The IT sector stresses a specific set of questions. Will software develop-
ment as-we-know-it steadily disappear, as foretells Nvidia CEO [Col24]? In an
“infinite world”, the question has its share of legitimacy, except probably for
technological or military processes constituting an existential issue. By the end
of the decade, will data science skills experience similar shifts, with 80% of ma-
chine learning tasks likely to be automated [Chr24]? Likewise, such assumptions
- partly relying on the progress of “AutoML” services that epitomize an energy-
intensive philosophy, will have to be updated in the light of energy reality and
the subsequent trade-offs.

5.5 Conception vs. Run Costs

A key distinction in IT economics lies in the difference between the conception
phase and the operational (run) phase.

25
5.5.1 Generative AI Accelerating Conception
Gen-AI significantly reduces the time required for ideation and prototyping
across industries. For example, product designers can rapidly iterate concepts
using AI-generated mock-ups. In numerous situations, Gen-AI can also deliver a
dramatically easy implementation of functions-as-a-service (FaaS). Indeed, if N-
tier architectures enjoyed a great comfort of conception with interface definition
frameworks during the last decade (e.g. OpenAPI), micro-services, per se, can
be now easily implemented with Gen-AI integrated solutions [Kia24] or through
basic software craftsmanship (e.g., prompting for structured JSON objects).

5.5.2 Run-Time Costs

However, magic has its drawbacks. Operating LLMs incurs significant compu-
tational and energy costs. Studies show that for specific non-generative tasks
(e.g. natural language classification) where FAI or vanilla algorithmics can pre-
tend to compete with, and sometimes outperform, LLMs, the latter can have
an energy consumption significantly higher [Mbe24a] (with, thereby, similarly
higher carbon emissions).
Hopefully, the combination of optimization techniques like cascades, approx-
imation, and prompt adaptation can theoretically save a significant percentage
of energy in eligible situations [LC24]. Are organizations, though, always in the
practical conditions to spend resources on such efficiency improvements? The
answer is not self-evident as long as we live in a world of cheap and abundant
energy, and where the relationship to time is a predominant determinant of
economic competition.

5.5.3 Naive Time-To-Market (TTM) pattern

The development cycle of a software feature is often TTM-driven due to the
competition for the early conquest of the largest market share. When (and
only when) the foreseen functionality is deemed eligible to frugal algorithmics,
comes most often a dilemma. Develop an accurate, reliable, tailor-made FAI-
based solution (calling for labelled data, model training, high skills and a longer
conception phase)? Or implement, faster and probably with a reduced devel-
opment team, a Gen-AI-based approach? The two scenarios are represented
hereafter with their respective timeline (see Figure 3). Let’s underline that the
schemes are purely didactic, so as to depict the cost distribution likely to happen
in each situation. First, they do not reflect real figures. Second, they do not
embark specific conception approaches like fine-tuning or similar techniques.
In short, with irrelevant Gen-AI usage involved in runtime platforms, costs
can rise faster than expected, putting product pricing at risk. This may be yet
justified by a strategic effort to secure early adoption by a market segment.
In those cases, though, appears a challenge of project governance: to apply a
proactive and frequent assessment of the relevance of Gen-AI usages at runtime.
A modular software architecture (e.g. micro-services) with well-documented
interfaces is the cornerstone of such continuous improvement efforts.

26
 Figure 3: The timeline dilemma: launching faster or building smarter

5.6 Conclusion
In the next five years, economic factors will drive AI adoption choices. While
LLMs continue to enable groundbreaking innovation, their high operational
costs may push organizations toward FAI solutions, especially in the present
geopolitical turmoil, where several clues indicate the closer proximity of a world
governed by finitude, especially at the turn of the next decade [Tah24]. A bal-
anced approach, leveraging the strengths of both paradigms, is likely to define
the future of AI deployment.

27
6 Planet Boundaries - On AI development and
energy resources

Contents
6.1 Growth in the use of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.2 Electricity resources required to operate the AI,
needed to sustain AI growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Authors (alphabetical order): François Bélorgey, Ludovic Arga

6.1 Growth in the use of AI

Most observers estimate [Glo24] that growth in usage and associated sales will
follow an exponential curve, at least by 2030. This growth is underpinned by a
particularly rapid rate of adoption of AI compared with that observed for other,
equally recent technologies, in which it is indeed generative AI that is driving
this growth in AI usage [Mck24].
This growth requires the associated material equipment in the form of servers
providing the necessary memory, power, and computing speed [Prö24], the man-
ufacture of which implies the availability of natural resources (water, metals,
etc.), and the operation of which implies the availability of the required elec-
tricity.

6.2 Electricity resources required to operate the AI, need-

ed to sustain AI growth
6.2.1 Evaluation to 2030
The growth in electricity required to operate the corresponding data centers
will follow a more moderate curve than that of AI usage, thanks to energy and
architecture gains [IEA24a]. However, these (linear) gains will not compensate
for the growth in electricity needed to keep pace with demand.
The United States [BL24] has estimated a projection of data center con-
sumption between 2024 and 2028, according to two scenarios (high and low),
which include, on the one hand,d the growth in storage and computing power,
and on the other hand, these energy gains.
Between 2010 and 2022, global electricity production grew by 50%. Between
2022 and 2040, it should grow by 100%, i.e. double, and then increase by a
further 25% between 2040 and 2050 [PE23], corresponding to linear growth
from 2010 to 2050.
An admittedly simple model (approximation of the growth in energy re-
quirements by an exponential curve, see Figure 4) based on the data for 2024
and 2028 mentioned above for the USA, scaled up to the global level (the USA

28
 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
0.863 1.056 1.2813 1.6 1.979 2.455 3.052 3.805 4.754 5.951 7.464

Table 3: % electricity production used by data centers, Medium case

consumed 17.3% of the world’s electricity in 2023 [IEA24b]), of electricity con-

sumption by data centers, using an average scenario built as the average of the
two scenarios (LC and HC), leads to the Table 6.2.1.

Figure 4: % World’s electricity production used by data centers

AI is not specifically discerned in this assessment, however, it has been noted

that the preponderant (exponential) part of this growth is linked to the use of
generative AI. According to this modelling estimate, by 2030 7.5% of the world’s
electricity production would be consumed by data centers.

6.2.2 Evaluation beyond 2030

The use of data for projections beyond 2030 is risky, due to the scarcity of
data and the high degree of uncertainty surrounding the evolution of other
resources likely to support growth (metals in particular), as well as the growth
in computing requirements linked to AI. Unsurprisingly, however, it would reveal
a divergence between (linear) growth in electricity production and (exponential)
growth in data center consumption (See Figure 5).
In particular, all the electricity generated in the world would be consumed
for data center needs as early as 2041.

6.3 Analysis
6.3.1 Conflicts over electricity use
Electricity, a limiting factor for AI growth - The growth of AI, through
the surplus electricity it requires, will be confronted with its need for energy

29
 Figure 5: World’s electricity production & data centers consumption

as a limiting factor in this growth. At the same time, it will intensify conflicts
over the use of the electricity produced, which, barring a technological break-
through (controlled nuclear fusion in particular, under research since the 1960s),
is unlikely to be able to sustain this development. This raises the question of
arbitration between different economic players regarding the availability of elec-
trical energy resources.

The position of economic players and the search for new sources
of electricity generation - The conditions for maintaining economic activity
will then be, in addition to the control of one’s own production processes, that
of access to electrical energy. This analysis explains why some major electricity
consumers are already seeking to secure their electricity supplies, in particular
by:
• privatizing production centers (e.g. units in conventional nuclear power
plants [Sé24]);
• deploying their own means of production (solarization) [Cha25] ;

• investing in, or forming partnerships with, innovative power generation

facilities such as nuclear Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which can be
adapted to keep pace with the growth of a data center [Ski24].
From this observation, we can also see that the economic activities that
will best be able to maintain themselves over the long term will be those that
have secured their electricity supplies, either through direct control of their own
electricity production facilities, or through a certain financial capacity by going
to the electricity financial markets.

30
6.3.2 Focus on France
Between 2035 and 2045, about half of France’s nuclear power generation capacity
will no longer be available. Nuclear power plants, built in comparable years
under the auspices of the Messmer Plan, are located on water-stressed rivers,
and most of them will not be able to be maintained beyond 50 years [Fra22].

31
7 Use the right AI for the right need at the right
time

Contents
7.1 Introduction - Life cycle of an AI system . . . . . 32
7.2 Finding the right inflection point . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3 Illustration on sentiment analysis . . . . . . . . . . 34

Authors (alphabetical order): Arnaud Braud, Lionel Delphin-Pou-

lat, Vincent Lemaire

7.1 Introduction - Life cycle of an AI system

The life cycle of an AI system is similar to the old one named “life cycle of
data mining project" [LCV+ 17]. In this section we are interested in Lifecycle
Assessment (LCA) [KG14] which is a systematic approach to evaluate the envi-
ronmental impacts of a product or system throughout its entire life cycle14 . As
for data mining, the AI lifecycle encompasses the complete process of developing
and deploying artificial intelligence systems. It starts with data collection and
moves through stages such as data preprocessing, model training, evaluation,
deployment, and ongoing monitoring and maintenance. For more details on
standardization see Section 10.
Due to the Life cycle of an AI system, here is a list of the costs that prevent
the AI from being frugal15 (a non-exhaustive list): (i) Development Costs (ii)
Data Costs (iii) Infrastructure Costs (iv) Training Costs or retraining cost (v)
Inference cost (vi) Maintenance Costs (vii) Compliance Costs (viii) Deployment
Costs (iX) Support Costs... These costs can accumulate and impact the overall
frugality of an AI system, and the reader may find more details in recent pub-
lications as for example: [XLZX24]. The cost to pay is the addition of these
costs (and some of them have to be paid at every use of a given model as for
example the inference cost). Contrary to some publications, the cost to pay is
not only the three steps: training, deployment, and production. We encourage
considering the sum of all these costs and not only part of them (for example
fine-tuning16 of the existing model only reduces one of the costs (the training
cost)). Even when only the model has to be updated, potentially updating the
model is an investment decision which, as in the financial markets, should only
be taken if a certain return on investment is expected [ZBS15] and frugality
should be taken into account.
14 We do not study AI-enhanced LCA models which try to improve the precision and depth

of environmental impact assessments [BJS24].

15 We do not define frugality here, see section 2. But we can think in this section that total

costs can have a minimum value given a task to be solved and an ROI to be achieved. In this
sense, the idea is to try to get as close as possible to this value.
16 See Section 14.2 for a definition of fine-tuning

32
 Another point in this period is the use of large models (Generative AI, large
deep neural networks, etc.). It could be interesting to keep in mind that “old
models”17 particularly on Tabular data or Time series remains quite interesting
in terms of performances (see the example below in section 7.3).
The list of tasks that could be performed with AI is very large (classification,
regression, ...). Many of them are currently not frugally solved by large models.
Indeed, one of the key points in frugality is finding the right inflection point
between performance and frugality (all the cost to pay), which is the focus of
the next subsection.

7.2 Finding the right inflection point

Finding the right inflection point between performance and frugality indicators
in AI models is critical to maximizing efficiency, accessibility, and ethical con-
siderations, while still achieving satisfactory levels of performance. Balancing
these factors can lead to more sustainable and impactful AI solutions. There
are many arguments in favour of finding the right tipping point18 , but here are
a few of the more obvious ones:

• Resource efficiency:
– Cost reduction: Energy-efficient models require less computing power
and memory, resulting in lower operating costs.
– Environmental impact: Reducing resource consumption can reduce
the carbon footprint associated with training and deploying AI mod-
els.
• Scalability:
– Broader accessibility: More efficient models can be deployed in resource-
constrained environments, making AI accessible to a wider audience.
– Faster deployment: More efficient models can be trained and de-
ployed faster, allowing rapid iteration and adaptation.
• Optimized Performance:
– Diminishing returns: At a certain point, increasing model complexity
yields minimal performance gains. Identifying the tipping point helps
avoid unnecessary complexity.
– Robustness: Simpler models can sometimes generalize better to un-
seen data, reducing the risk of overfitting.
• User Experience:
– Latency reduction: Frugal models often result in faster inference
times, improving the user experience in real-time applications.
17 We mean by ‘no large models’ as for example Linear Regression, K-nearest neighbours,

Random Forest [Bre01], Catboost [PGV+ 18], Khiops [Bou16], etc. or even signal processing
for time series as, for example, exponential smoothing, Arima, etc. [BJ76]
18 This can also be seen in terms of simplification gains.

33
 – Ease of integration: Less complex models can be more easily inte-
grated into existing systems and workflows.
• Ethical Considerations
– Fairness and transparency: Simpler models can be more interpretable,
making it easier to understand the decisions made by AI systems and
promoting fairness.
– Bias mitigation: Frugal models can reduce the risk of embedding
biases that can result from overly complex architectures.
• Innovation and experimentation: Encouraging creativity: A focus on fru-
gality can inspire innovative approaches to problem solving, leading to
novel solutions that may not rely on heavy computational resources.
• This list is not exhaustive, of course, and we can add costs that are some-
times ‘hidden’, such as increasing the skills of teams, integrating an addi-
tional data scientist into the project team, ...). etc.

One way to find this trade-off is to use benchmarking [DJ03], which plays a
crucial role in the development of frugal AI by improving efficiency and adapt-
ability. The results of benchmarking AI methods help to develop more frugal
AI in several ways. Firstly, it is possible to identify efficient methods, since
benchmarks enable comparing the performance of different AI methods, high-
lighting those that offer the best value for money in terms of the resources used.
Secondly, it is possible to optimize resources: through analysis of the results, re-
searchers (i.e. users) can identify algorithms that require less data or computing
power, thus favouring lighter solutions. They also provide a consistent frame-
work to evaluate AI models, ensuring comparability across different approaches
(standardization). They help identify the most efficient algorithms for specific
tasks, guiding resource allocation (performance metrics). They encourage shar-
ing of best practices and datasets, fostering innovation in frugal AI solutions
(community Collaboration).
Note: The aim of benchmark results is not to systematically compare solu-
tions (by repeating a lot of experiments), but to build up a set of skills that
will enable an appropriate selection to be made. The question is therefore “how
can companies that do not have data scientists build up this knowledge” (or
companies that have qualified data scientists but who are overloaded with work
and therefore cannot respond to all requests...).

7.3 Illustration on sentiment analysis

As far as we know, there is no universal method for finding the right tipping
point. Modestly, however, we can mention one that makes sense at the start of
a data science project: (i) define the performance criterion for the project; (ii)
define the value of this criterion (perhaps in the form of a return on investment
(ROI)); (iii) use a rule, an AI, ..., that is simple at the start and then, if the value
of the criterion is not reached, make the AI more complex; (iv) stop as soon as
the value of the criterion is reached or when the sum of the costs becomes too

34
great (or the return on investment cannot be achieved or the cost of achieving
it will be too high).
This is illustrated in Figure 6: In the purple case, if the return on investment
in terms of performance is achieved with P1, there is no reason to make the AI
more complex and pay additional costs. In the green case, the same performance
can be achieved for two different costs. It is therefore very interesting to start
by using an AI producing cost C1 and then stop. The worst case is where using
an AI produces a higher overall cost with poorer performance (not illustrated
in the figure).
This last scenario is well presented in [Mbe24b]. In this report a classification
task is designed on text (sentiment analysis) using a Support Vector Machine
(SVM) [CV95] or three Large Language Model (LLM)19 . For this given clas-
sification task we may observe that the biggest LLM energy consumptions for
inference are they are several orders of magnitude higher than a standard SVM
for a comparable (or lower) accuracy.

Figure 6: Illustration of different tradeoffs between performances and costs

19 (BERT fine-tuned on the problem to solve, Llamma and BERT prompted to solve the

problem)

35
8 Assessment of environmental footprint of AI

Contents
8.1 Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.2 Energy consumption: challenges . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.3 Energy Consumption Measurements . . . . . . . . 37
8.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Measurement . . . . . 37

Authors (alphabetical order): Arnaud Braud, Lionel Delphin-Poulat,

Tamara Tosic

8.1 Life Cycle Assessment

To reduce the environmental impacts of AI, those impacts need to be identified
and measured [APV+ 22]. Methods relying on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) (see
Figure 7), as defined by ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, have been proposed
in [LVL23]. Impacts exist throughout the life cycle.

Figure 7: AI System life cycle

The variables that influence the environmental footprint of AI, discussed in

detail in Section 3, must be kept as low as possible throughout the AI life cycle.
This section focuses mainly on machine learning aspects rather than symbolic
AI (see, e.g. [GS19] for a symbolic AI definition and its relation to machine
learning), except for some tools given in the latter case.
The life cycle of machine learning AI systems [DA22] consists mainly of:
• Collecting, storing, and preprocessing data,
• Training and assessing models with the previously collected data,
• Running the best models in applications.

It should be noted that these steps are not fully sequential and may be inter-
leaved, e.g., new data may be collected while running the system to train new
models.

36
8.2 Energy consumption: challenges
Today, there are three major research challenges linked with energy consumption
in AI:
• Defining unified measures for energy consumption of various algorithms.
• Evolving measures sideways with the emergence of new AI methods.
• Determining correlations between measurable variables (e.g., energy con-
sumption, carbon footprint, greenhouse gas) and major political and in-
dustrial efforts.
To reduce the energy consumption of AI training and inference, it is critical
to develop a common measurement framework that includes a complete system,
as well as a per-component energy evaluation. The objective is to identify
components prone to optimization and compare different algorithms.
Today, there is no unified tool that evaluates these steps for all use cases,
usages, and data types. Recent research efforts provide training and inference
evaluations of ML methods, see [RDK+ 24], [TPSG+ 24] and references within.

8.3 Energy Consumption Measurements

To evaluate the energy consumption of machine learning functions and/or hard-
ware components, one needs to define the software and hardware use case char-
acteristics and appropriate measures associated with them. There are three
categories of measurements:
• External power meter (EPM) measurements of hardware components.
• Energy profiling of physical components and/or algorithms (e.g., estima-
tion of energy consumption based on calculus-related hardware or software
variables).
• Measurements of built-in components or sensors of specific manufacturer
solutions (e.g., CPU, GPU, or several hardware components).
The EPM is a baseline method for evaluating energy consumption. It is used
to evaluate virtual [KZL+ 10] or physical systems (from integrated circuits [BJ12]
on top of specialized sensors, measurements of systems [RRK08] by wall outlets,
towards clouds [AOL22] or large-scale data centers [OLOF23]). However, all
three measurement categories have their drawbacks. For example, EPM suffers
from an inability to provide the fine-grained energy assessment of methods and
tools, and is costly at scale [ADSS23].

8.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Measurement

For the moment, regarding AI, Orange’s internal studies have focused on Green-
house Gas Emissions (GHG). Other variable impacts will be evaluated in the
future with the same methodology when data becomes available.

37
8.4.1 Source of GHG Emissions
Following [LVL23], several sources of emissions can be identified:
• Embodied emissions: the emissions associated to the production of hard-
ware for training/inference and data storage.

• Power Consumption: the emissions due to power consumption. Elec-

tric energy consumption is used to estimate greenhouse gas emissions by
Eq.(1):
GHGe = Ci × E, (1)
where E is the consumed energy in kW h, Ci is the carbon intensity of
electricity production in kgCO2 eq/kW h and GHGe are the GHG emis-
sions in kgCO2 eq. Ci is highly dependent on the energetic mix. Measuring
the consumption of an AI model is, however tricky as they are executed
in large computing clusters. As such, it requires additional hypotheses
depending on the tool used to make the initial measurement, for example:
– If an EPM is used at node level, at least PUE (Power Usage Effective-
ness: the ratio between the energy consumed by the whole datacenter
and the energy consumed by computing equipment [MB06]) needs to
be taken into account to get an approximation of the node in the
datacenter, then another approximation is needed to narrow it to
the model code.
– If a code tracker such as Code Carbon [CSL+ 24] is used, then both
the idle consumption of the infrastructure, which is the energy con-
sumed by computing nodes when no specific computation is running
on (the energy correspond to the operating system run), and the PUE
should be factored in to reflect both infrastructure inefficiencies and
potential under-use of computing nodes.
– If GPU consumption alone was estimated (either through GPU-Hours,
or FLOPS calculators such as LLMCarbon), then per [LVL23] it only
represents dynamic power consumption and an extra effort must be
done to estimate the idle consumption and the infrastructure (net-
work, storage, cooling, building, etc.) consumption in order to have
a better estimate of the model consumption.

8.4.2 Tools
Different software tools are available to measure or estimate GHG emissions,
mainly direct emissions due to power consumption during training and inference.
These tools provide power consumption and convert it to GHG emissions as
in Equation (1) using estimates of the carbon intensity. Power consumption
measurements with software tools are not straightforward, and differences in
power as measured by physical and software tools can occur, see [JOL+ 23].

38
 These software tools may be generic for broad software development, or
specified for a given programming language or machine learning approaches,
such as deep learning or large language models (LLMs).
Here are examples of such tools:
• Code Carbon: Code Carbon is a Python library that reports CPU, GPU,
and RAM consumption [CSL+ 24]. For CPU, on Linux, it relies on Intel
and AMD Processors on Running Average Power Limit (RAPL). In Intel
architectures, measurements are retrieved from registers storing physical
power measures, while in AMD, they are estimates from a set of events
from the core processor, IOs [JOL+ 23]. For GPU, only NVIDIA boards
are handled, relying on NVIDIA Management (NVML) library. For RAM,
a simple rule of thumb is used: 3W are accounted for per 8GB.
• ML CO2 Impact: Machine Learning CO2 Impact provides estimates of
GHG emissions resulting from the power consumption of specific hard-
wares (GPUs and CPUs), using their Thermal Design Power (TDP), which
gives an upper bound on the power consumption, and the duration of us-
age. It also takes into account the cloud provider and location of the cloud
to estimate the carbon intensity of the electricity, assuming that the cloud
energy supplier belongs to the same location as the cloud) [LLSD19].
• ecologits: Ecologits provides estimates of electricity consumption, GHG
emissions, abiotic resources depletion, and primary energy consumption
for LLMs inference. Electricity consumption is estimated for a given model
and a given number of tokens. It takes into account an estimated number
of GPUs needed to perform inference. It is assumed that the computing
node is an AWS cloud instance with 8 NVIDIA A100 with 80GB of mem-
ory GPUs. The electricity consumption also takes into account the idle
power consumption by applying a PUE of 1.2. GHG emission estimates
account for both energy consumption and embodied emissions.
All these tools, even those that perform measurements while running training
or inference, rely on estimations, particularly on electricity and carbon inten-
sity. The latter two are highly dependent on the electricity provider, the time
of the day, of the year, and on estimates of the carbon footprint of hardware
and a hardware life expectancy. However, these tools are useful for providing
an order of magnitude. If the same tool is used in an appropriate condition, it
can be used to compare several hardware setups, machine learning models, and
algorithms, and to assess the improvements that are implemented to decrease
the carbon footprint.

In addition to those tools, cloud providers monitor the carbon footprint of

the whole service of embedding AI components. Those measures are also rele-
vant for assessing the carbon footprint of a full service, but do not provide the
specific impact of AI components.

39
 There are a variety of tools, measures, and procedures. The appropriate one
must be chosen, depending on whether one wants to compute the impacts of
the complete system or to deep dive into a specific component to decrease its
impact. In the latter case, care must be taken to ensure that decreasing its
impact does not increase the impact of another component.

40
9 Acculturation
Authors (alphabetical order): Nathalie Charbonniaud, Vincent Le-
maire

There is a considerable amount of work to be completed to progress beyond

the initial group of individuals who are aware of and comprehend the subject.
Since the release of generative artificial intelligence tools such as ChatGPT, a
significant proportion of the population has become accustomed to using these
tools, unfortunately, without being aware of their environmental impact. It
is important that "how to design frugal AI, how to be aware of AI costs" is
brought to the attention of the public, albeit with the understanding that this
will require a significant investment of effort to educate and popularise it.
Acculturation to environmental impacts should be central to the implemen-
tation of Frugal AI principles, aiming to raise awareness and provide actionable
tools for all stakeholders (citizens, employees, students, decision-makers, politi-
cians, etc.).
Best practices in eco-design for AI should be integrated into existing deve-
lopment processes within organizations to enhance effectiveness.
The success factors for transforming organizations towards sustainability are
numerous. However, it is often easier to align implementation with co-benefits
such as cost reduction, stakeholder engagement, and highlighting positive im-
pacts on the economy, environment, and society.

Here are the main Best Practices recommendations for going toward
a frugal AI (see the standardization afnor for frugal AI) :
• Challenge the necessity and identify potential negative environmental
impacts (both direct and indirect) in advance. To involve decision-makers
in taking account of the challenges of sustainability and AI, (The Climate
Change AI) association is catalysing impactful work at the intersection of
climate change and machine learning, with a dedicated section for decision-
makers.
• Define an appropriate and frugal solution, prioritizing traditional
AI over generative AI. Select the model with the least impact that meets
the needs in all cases. (The AI energy score), a joint initiative between
Hugging Face and Salesforce, is a dashboard that identifies the model that
consumes the least energy to perform a task.
• Measure environmental emissions throughout the project’s entire lifecy-
cle and share the results. To be at the cutting edge of these issues, you
should follow the work of PhD Sasha Luccioni, or look at the progress of
the initiative launched during the AI action summit for a global observa-
tory on AI and energy (link...).
• Propose continuous improvements, such as limiting functionalities to
essential needs, optimizing models, and reducing data used for (re)training.

41
 • Consider circularity: reuse materials and avoid new purchases. It is
noted that 45% of environmental impacts are found in data centers (Nu-
merique quel impact environmental en-2025).
• For GenAI solution, optimize inferences and train users on prompts
(fewer prompts lead to lower carbon emissions). There are comparators
such as compare.ia, which makes users aware of the art of prompting
and developing their critical faculties concerning the results obtained and
energy costs.

To go further, it is recommended that these eco-design principles be com-

bined with the principles of ethics and responsibility in order to promote a
systemic view of impacts. Here is a reference that tends towards this approach,
led by the French Institute of Digital Responsibility.

42
10 Standardizations
Authors (alphabetical order): Nathalie Charbonniaud, Christel Fau-
ché.

International standards are showing a willingness to provide a framework for

the design and deployment of artificial intelligence (AI) throughout the entire
lifecycle. A first approach has been structuring with the arrival of the specifica-
tion on Frugal AI lead by AFNOR, the French organism for the standardization
(see: "A benchmark for measuring and reducing the environmental impact of
AI") and the French Government (see: Digital ecological footprint: standardi-
zation of frugal AI).
AI as part of a digital service or a product can already rely on existing robust
standards (e.g., GHG Protocol, ISO/IEC on datacenters and software systems,
the environmental assessment of products and services proposed by the ITU,
etc.). To assess the environmental impact of digital services, the current stan-
dards use as references the ITU-T L.1480 “Enabling the Net Zero transition:
Assessing how the use of information and communication technology solutions
impact greenhouse gas emissions of other sectors”, the ISO 14040.2006 «Envi-
ronmental management - Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework”
and the ITU-T L.1410 “Methodology for environmental life cycle assessments
of information and communication technology goods, networks and services”.
However, approaches need to be harmonized to facilitate transparency and
provide a common framework for assessing artificial intelligence.
• The first challenge is to define the scope of the calculations to be con-
sidered. There seems to be a consensus among experts on the life-cycle
approach (from design to the end of life of artificial intelligence), but other
movements want to go further (and for good reasons) by considering the
indirect impacts and rebound effects generated by the products and the
services that integrate AI.

• The second challenge will be to choose the right indicators to measure the
environmental impact of artificial intelligence, to go beyond carbon and
take into account consumption of water, equipment, etc.
Standardization remains a challenge, given the rapid pace at which AI tech-
nology is evolving, and the difficulty of mitigating the environmental impact of
AI or AI systems involved in the development of technical solutions.

43
11 Toward Frugal AI inspired by Nature
Authors (alphabetical order): Frédéric Guyard

It is a striking fact that many of the basic behaviours requiring few efforts
to animals are challenging to realize with current AI. These behaviours have
been selected by millions of years of evolution to ensure animal survival, requir-
ing them to solve as early as possible the so-called "four Fs", namely feeding,
fighting, fleeing, and mating. Although these behaviours may be learned and
acquired by animals during their lifetime, it turns out that many of them are
innate or are learned extremely quickly. This suggests that these innate mech-
anisms are wired up in the nervous system. However, simple calculations show
that for animals with a large brain, DNA is not large enough to store all infor-
mation about the nervous system connectivity [Zad19]. Clearly, a larger brain
allows the creation of new areas that don’t exist in a smaller brain, which can
be recruited for the emergence of new behaviours or skills. It seems, however,
that for a given common cognitive task, the larger brains have a great deal of
circuit redundancy, which ensures robustness and probably better discrimina-
tion between signals from sensory sensors. It is this redundancy, rather than
the creation of new circuitry, that seems to be the main factor in the differences
between larger and smaller brains [CN09]. Insects have much smaller brains
than humans. They, however, often possess a very wide range of different be-
haviours, and are capable of complex learning (decisions, number evaluation,
calculations, evaluation of time intervals time intervals, abstract comprehen-
sion, etc.), all at a very low energy cost [BFM11]. For example, for a fruit fly
(drosophila melanogaster) with an average weight of 1mg, the total metabolism
requires around 0.1mW. In fact, it appears [CN09] that many of the cognitive
tasks performed by insects require very few neurons and that brain size is not
a reliable indicator of the diversity of cognitive behaviour. Beyond energy and
structural aspects, numerous studies show that the creation of associative mem-
ory in insects’ brain is extremely fast and requires few training, exhibiting a
form of a few-shot learning [RN20].

The combination low energy cost, circuitry of small size, and few-shot learning
makes the brain of animals, and in particular of insects, particularly attractive
as a source of inspiration for the design of frugal AI. Inspiration from general
knowledge about brain structure has already a long history. Back to the sem-
inal paper of W. S. McCulloch and W. Pitts in 1943 [MP90], the first neural
networks were directly inspired by brain organization. Convolutional neural net-
works (CNN), now widely used in current AI models, are also inspired by the
structure of the visual cortex of cats [Fuk69]. More recently, inspiration from
the visual system of the dragonfly has been used toward the design of missile
guidance and interception [Cha20, Cha21]. Cerebellum inspired spiking neural
networks are used in robotics for the control of articulation of unstable robots
[PMH13] or for multitask models for pattern classification and robotic trajectory
prediction [VD22]. Moth and Drosophila’s olfactory circuits have been used to

44
design image [DK19, SDN21] classification neural networks. Leveraging brain
capabilities for frugal AI requires, however, deeper knowledge of its structural
organization. These models are based on the functional connectome, i.e., the
connections between various regions of the brain. Leveraging brain capabilities
for frugal AI requires, however more deeper knowledge on its structural orga-
nization given by the neural connectome, the wiring map at the neuron level.
Until recently, connectomes of organisms were only partially known. The first
complete connectomes were only characterized in the last decade for the round-
worm Caenorhabditis elegans (302 neurons, 7000 synapses) initially available in
1989 [YA92] and revised in 2019 [CJB+ 19], for the tadpole larva of Ciona in-
testinalis (177 neurons, 6618 synases) [RLM16] in 2016, for the segmented sea
worm Platynereis dumerilii larva (1500 neurons, 25509 synapses) [VJG+ 20] in
2020, and for the drosophila larva (3016 neurons, 548000 synapses) [WPB+ 23] in
2023. Finally, in 2024 the full connectome of adult female Drosophila (139255
neurons, 5 · 107 synapses) has been reported [DMS+ 24]. In addition, several
sub-circuits of these connectomes and their biological functions have already
been identified. This is, for instance, the case for the regions associated with
memory [LLM+ 20], its visual [TBLa13] and olfactory [SBS+ 21] systems, or its
ellipsoidal body playing the role of a "compass" [HHF+ 21]. Overall, this detailed
knowledge provides avenues for the design of frugal AI networks.

45
12 AI Embedded on devices

Contents
12.1 Current State of Hardware for Frugal AI . . . . . 46
12.2 Dedicated AI Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
12.3 Future Trends in Hardware for Frugal AI . . . . . 55

Authors (alphabetical order): David Excoffier, Frédéric Guyard,

Paweł Piotrowski, Krzysztof Sapiejewski.

This chapter presents basic information about dedicated hardware used in AI

calculations: their types, characteristics, basic parameters, and usage scenarios.

12.1 Current State of Hardware for Frugal AI

The current state of frugal AI hardware focuses on solutions that combine
computing power, cost-effectiveness, and energy efficiency. Hardware has seen
significant advances driven by the need to democratize AI beyond expensive,
power-hungry systems like NVIDIA’s H100 or Cerebras’ WSE-2. The rise of
edge computing has driven the development of low-cost neural processing units
(NPUs), such as Qualcomm’s Hexagon NPU in Snapdragon chipsets and AMD’s
Ryzen AI Engine in low-cost laptops, enabling AI model inference directly on
the device with ultra-low power consumption. Companies like Google have
shrunk the size of their Edge TPU to make it usable in more affordable devices
like their Pixel phones, while startups like Groq and D-Matrix are introducing
new designs, such as the Tensor Streaming Processor and in-memory comput-
ing chips, that maximize cost-to-performance ratios. Open-source hardware
initiatives, like RISC-V-based AI accelerators, are also gaining traction, offering
customizable, low-cost alternatives to proprietary ASIC solutions. Meanwhile,
energy-efficient photonic chips from Lightmatter and neuromorphic processors
like Intel’s Loihi 2, whom remain in early adoption stages, but promise to further
reduce operational costs. Overall, these developments signal a shift toward fru-
gal AI hardware that balances performance and affordability, making AI more
accessible on many more devices at much lower cost.

12.2 Dedicated AI Hardware

12.2.1 Overview of dedicated AI hardware
Traditional general-purpose processors (CPUs) are often incapable of handling
the massive computational loads required by modern AI applications. This has
led to the adaptation of already existing or the development of new types of
devices supporting AI tasks, which may be called AI accelerators.
AI accelerators are specialized hardware designed to speed up the computa-
tion processes needed for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)

46
tasks. These devices are optimized to handle the massive parallelism and high-
performance demands of AI workloads, such as training deep neural networks,
running inference tasks, and processing large datasets.

Computational models There are two primary models for AI computing:

cloud-based and edge, each offering distinct advantages and trade-offs. Under-
standing these models is essential in choosing the right solution for specific
use cases, particularly in the context of frugal AI, where efficiency, cost, and
performance are crucial.
AI accelerators for cloud computing and edge computing are often designed
with different priorities and use cases in mind, so they typically look different
in terms of form factor, performance characteristics, and power consumption.

Table 4: Computational models

Feature Cloud computing Edge computing

Form factor and - usually high-performance, large- - typically compact, energy-
hardware design scale devices like GPUs, TPUs, or efficient, and designed for low-
ASICs (housed in data centers), power environments. They need to
- designed to handle the heavy lift- be small enough to fit in devices
ing of AI tasks such as training like smartphones, IoT devices,
deep neural networks or processing drones, autonomous vehicles, and
large datasets in real-time across embedded systems.
many users. - often designed to provide AI ca-
- can be rack-mounted or part of pabilities directly on the device
large-scale server systems, and are without relying on cloud comput-
typically more power-hungry, as ing, enabling real-time process-
they can rely on high power and ing and low latency in scenar-
cooling systems provided by the ios like real-time video processing,
data center. voice assistants, or autonomous
decision-making.
Performance - Optimized for maximum com- - Optimized for lower power con-
characteristics putational power, which is neces- sumption while still delivering suf-
sary for training large models and ficient performance to handle real-
performing complex computations time AI inference tasks. They are
that require extensive parallel pro- designed to run pre-trained mod-
cessing. els (inference), rather than train-
- Typically handle tasks like large- ing new models.
scale machine learning training, - Performance is usually lower com-
processing large datasets, and pared to cloud accelerators, but
executing high-throughput opera- the focus is on balancing speed,
tions. The performance (measured power efficiency, and small size.
in terms of teraflops, for example) - The goal is to perform local
is much higher compared to edge processing to reduce the need for
accelerators. constant communication with the
- Have virtually no constraints on cloud, improving latency and pri-
power or thermal limits, as they vacy.
are typically in large data centers
with access to robust cooling sys-
tems.
Power consump- - Generally not constrained by - Power efficiency is a critical fac-
tion power limitations, as they reside in tor here. These accelerators are de-
data centers with access to ample signed to operate on devices with
power and dedicated cooling solu- limited power supply, like smart-
tions. They can consume a signifi- phones, wearables, or battery-
cant amount of energy due to their powered IoT devices. Power con-
high-performance design. sumption must be minimized with-
out sacrificing too much perfor-
mance.

47
 Table 4: Computational models (continued)

Feature Cloud computing Edge computing

Use cases - Training large-scale AI models - Real-time inference on localized
(e.g., training deep neural net- devices, enabling low-latency pro-
works for natural language process- cessing without waiting for cloud
ing, image recognition, etc.). communication.
- High-volume AI inference for - Common edge computing tasks
tasks like recommendation sys- include autonomous vehicles,
tems, fraud detection, and serving smart cameras, IoT sensors, voice
multiple clients with complex mod- assistants, and smartphones.
els. - Examples: on-device image
- Examples: data centers process- recognition for surveillance came-
ing AI for online services, such ras, facial recognition on smart-
as search engines, recommendation phones, voice-to-text on smart
engines, and advanced analytics. speakers, and real-time decision-
making in drones or robots.
Connectivity and - Rely on high-speed internet and - Aim to minimize or eliminate la-
latency cloud infrastructure for communi- tency by processing data directly
cation. This introduces latency on the device, which can be cru-
due to the need for data trans- cial for time-sensitive tasks (e.g.,
fer between the edge device and autonomous driving, real-time me-
the cloud, especially in remote or dical diagnostics).
poorly connected areas. - Data is processed locally without
the need for an internet connec-
tion, ensuring that decisions can be
made instantaneously.
Cost - The cost of using cloud-based - Typically more affordable in
AI accelerators is typically usage- terms of upfront costs, as they are
based and can be expensive for ex- embedded in consumer devices or
tensive tasks like model training or dedicated hardware for specific ap-
large-scale data processing, though plications.
it offers scalability and flexibility. - While the initial cost may be
- Costs can include cloud service lower, managing a large-scale net-
subscriptions, data transfer, and work of edge devices could still
storage fees. involve infrastructure management
and maintenance costs.

48
Types of AI accelerators We can distinguish several types of these devices:
• Graphics Processing Units (GPUs): originally designed for graphics
rendering, GPUs are highly parallel processors that are well-suited for
deep learning tasks, particularly for training neural networks.

• Tensor Processing Units (TPUs): developed by Google, TPUs are

application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) designed to accelerate ten-
sor processing. TPUs offer high efficiency and are tailored for workloads
using Google’s TensorFlow framework.
• Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs): FPGAs are configu-
rable hardware that can be customized to optimize specific AI algorithms.
They offer flexibility for fine-tuning20 AI applications but may not reach
the same level of performance as GPUs or TPUs in certain tasks.
• Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs): these are custom-
designed chips built specifically for AI workloads. They provide excellent
performance but are limited to specific tasks.
• Neural Processing Units (NPUs): NPUs are specialized hardware de-
signed specifically for accelerating neural network-based algorithms. They
are found in some modern smartphones and embedded systems.
• Language Processing Unit (LPU): LPU is a proprietary and special-
ized chip developed by the Groq company. It is designed to handle the
unique speed and memory demands of LLMs – tasks that are sequential
by nature rather than parallel.
• Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): while not as specialized as others,
DSPs can accelerate certain signal processing tasks related to AI, such as
audio and image processing, with lower power consumption.
AI accelerators play a critical role in the evolution of AI technologies, making
complex computations more efficient, faster, and cost-effective, which is essential
for the rapid progress of AI applications across various industries.
The following table compares basic features of different types of AI accele-
rators (their architectures).

12.2.2 AI accelerators in embedded systems (for Frugal AI)

This chapter focuses on AI accelerators used in embedded systems in the context
of ”Frugal AI”. We discuss requirements imposed on this type of equipment,
types of devices, their characteristics, as well as their advantages, disadvantages,
and challenges.
While AI accelerators such as GPUs, TPUs, NPUs, and FPGAs have tradi-
tionally been used in high-performance data centers or cloud-based systems, the
20 See Section 14.2 for a definition of fine-tuning

49
 Figure 8: AI Accelerators feature comparison

shift towards edge AI and frugal AI solutions is reshaping the landscape. Frugal
AI refers to the application of AI technologies in environments with constraints
such as limited power resources, low-cost hardware, small form factors, and low-

50
latency requirements. This shift demands the use of low-power, cost-effective,
and efficient AI accelerators capable of performing high-speed computations
without compromising energy consumption or operational costs.
AI accelerators can be very useful in the context of Frugal AI, especially in
environments with limited computing power or budget. The concept of Frugal
AI often focuses on building AI models and solutions that achieve significant
results with minimal resources, which is especially important in settings like
emerging markets, low-cost devices, or resource-constrained environments.
Table 5 describes how AI accelerators align with and enhance Frugal AI.
Table 5: AI accelerator features that boost Frugal AI.

Features Description of AI acceleratiors

Improved Efficiency with They can perform AI tasks much faster than general-
Limited Resources purpose CPUs, helping achieve better performance without
needing large-scale, expensive infrastructure.
Cost-Effective AI Solu- Allow for cost-effective solutions by providing specialized
tions hardware that delivers high performance without requiring
a significant investment.
Becoming more common, enabling the deployment of AI in
resource-constrained environments while keeping costs low.
Energy Efficiency for Sus- Designed to be more energy-efficient than general-purpose
tainable AI processors, which is critical when deploying on battery-
operated devices or in areas with limited power resources.
Remain sustainable and can be deployed at scale, even in
environments where electricity costs are high or where access
to power is limited (e.g., rural areas, developing countries).
Enabling Localized AI for Frugal AI often focuses on local processing (i.e., on-device
Accessibility AI), which ensures that AI applications are available even
in remote areas with limited connectivity.
Scalability with Low-Cost In many parts of the world, AI applications need to be de-
AI Infrastructure ployed on a large scale but with limited resources. AI accel-
erators in smartphones, IoT devices, or embedded systems
offer a way to scale AI solutions across many devices with
minimal cost.

12.2.3 Types of AI accelerators in/for embedded systems

AI accelerators for embedded systems come in various forms, including low-
power GPUs, NPUs, FPGAs, and ASICs, each offering unique advantages de-
pending on the specific application requirements. What sets these accelerators
apart is their ability to deliver high compute performance while maintaining
low power consumption and occupying minimal space: two critical factors in
embedded applications.

Low-power GPUs Low-power GPUs are designed specifically for embedded

systems, mobile and IoT devices, smart cameras, drones and edge computing
where energy efficiency is crucial. They deliver a balance between performance
and power efficiency, making them suitable for battery-operated devices and
energy-constrained applications.
Examples of this type of device are:

• NVIDIA Jetson Series (Jetson Nano, Jetson Xavier NX) [Nvi25a]

• ARM Mail GPUs (Mali-G52, Mali-G76, Mali-G57) [ARM25c]

51
 • Qualcomm Adreno GPUs (Adreno 620, Adreno 660) [Qua25]
• Intel Integrated Graphics (Iris Plus, UHD Graphics)
• AMD Radeon RX 500 Series (low-power models)
• Imagination Technologies PowerVR Series (GM9446, Series8XE) [Cor25c]

• VPU (Vision Processing Unit) by Intel Movidius. [Int25b]

These low-power GPUs are suitable for applications in Frugal AI, as they
make AI more accessible by reducing the cost and energy consumption needed
to run AI models, especially in environments with limited resources.

Coral Edge TPU Google Edge TPU is a specialized low-power AI accele-

rator designed for edge computing. It provides fast, efficient machine learning
inference while consuming minimal power, making it ideal for IoT, embedded
AI, and smart devices. Its key features are:

• ultra-low power consumption: ideal for battery-powered AI devices,

• optimized for TensorFlow Lite: fast and efficient inference for pre-
trained models,
• cost effectiveness: a relatively low-cost solution for running AI models
on edge devices,

• affordable and scalable: integrated into Coral Dev Boards, USB acce-
lerators, and M.2 modules,
• real-time AI at the edge: no need for cloud processing, reducing la-
tency and data transfer costs,

• user-friendly: easy to integrate with popular Raspberry Pi boards and

other small devices.

Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) AI accelerators FPGAs are

hardware devices that consist of an array of programmable logic blocks, which
can be configured to execute custom operations. These devices are highly flexible
and can be adapted to meet specific computational needs. The advantages of
using FPGAs for AI acceleration are:

• customizable processing pipelines: they can be programmed to im-

plement custom hardware accelerators for specific parts of an AI model,

• energy efficiency: they offer lower power consumption compared to

GPUs and CPUs for specific workloads, i.e., a well-optimized FPGA can
provide performance similar to GPUs but with much less power usage,

52
 • high throughput and parallelism: the ability to perform multiple
operations in parallel allows FPGAs to provide high throughput for AI
workloads,
• low latency: they have a unique advantage when it comes to low-latency
AI inference,

• reconfigurability: unlike specialized AI hardware accelerators like ASICs,

FPGAs can be reconfigured to support new algorithms or updated models.

There are also some challenges while using FPGAs for AI:

• programming complexity: one of the biggest challenges of using FP-

GAs is the programming complexity, because it requires knowledge of
hardware description languages (HDL),
• performance variability: the performance depends heavily on a con-
figuration of a particular task. Poor optimization can lead to suboptimal
performance. As a result, performance tuning is essential, which can be
time-consuming,
• cost and availability: they can be more expensive than GPUs for some
use cases, particularly for mass deployment in cloud-based or consumer
devices.

Here are several examples of FPGA AI accelerators: Xilinx Versal AI Core

[AMD25a], Xilinx Vitis AI [AMD25b], Intel Altera [Int25a], Achronix [Cor25a],
AWS EC2 F1 instances [EC225].

ASICs for AI acceleration ASICs are custom-designed hardware solutions

optimized to perform specific tasks much faster and more efficiently than general-
purpose processors (CPUs and GPUs). The key points of ASICs as AI acceler-
ators are:

• specialization: ASICs are built for one particular job. By tailoring the
hardware to a specific AI model or operation, ASICs are highly efficient
at executing those tasks,
• high performance: they can achieve unmatched, processing many ope-
rations in parallel with minimal overhead,

• low power consumption: can be extremely power-efficient because the

hardware is tailored to the task at hand,
• fixed functionality: that means they are incredibly efficient at doing
what they are designed to do,

• cost-effectiveness at scale: while ASICs can be expensive to develop

initially, they become extremely cost-effective at scale,

53
 • compact form factor: ASICs can be designed to have a very small form
factor, which allows them to be integrated into compact devices.
Despite these advantages, ASICs also meet some challenges:
• lack of flexibility: ASICs are fixed-function devices, meaning that once
designed, they cannot be reprogrammed or repurposed for other tasks,
• high development cost: designing and manufacturing an ASIC is a
costly and time-consuming process, typically requiring millions of dollars
in research and development, especially for custom-designed hardware,
• initial investment: the upfront cost to develop and produce an ASIC is
significant,
• limited customization after production: once an ASIC is produced,
any changes to the hardware require the creation of a new version.
Examples of ASIC AI accelerators are: Google TPU [Clo25], Apple’s Neural
Engine (ANE), Huawei Ascend [Cor25b], Intel Nervana NNP (discontinued in
favor of development of Habana Labs’ chips) [Int25c].

Neural Processing Unit(s) Neural processing units (NPUs) are special-

ized computer microprocessors designed to mimic the processing function of the
human brain. They are typically used within heterogeneous computing archi-
tectures that combine multiple processors, e.g., CPUs and GPUs on a single
semiconductor microchip known as a system-on-chip (SoC).
By integrating a dedicated NPU, manufacturers are able to offer on-device
generative AI apps capable of processing AI applications, AI workloads, and
machine learning algorithms in real-time with relatively low power consumption
and high throughput.
The following list presents NPUs’ key features:
• parallel processing: NPUs can break down larger problems into com-
ponents for multitasking problem solving,
• low precision arithmetic: NPUs often support 8-bit (or lower) opera-
tions to reduce computational complexity and increase energy efficiency,
• high-bandwidth memory: high-bandwidth memory on-chip feature to
efficiently perform AI processing tasks requiring large datasets,
• hardware acceleration: incorporation of hardware acceleration tech-
niques such as systolic array architectures or improved tensor processing.
Examples of NPU AI accelerators are: Rockchip RK3399Pro [RC25], Me-
diaTek Dimensity NPU [Med25], Khadas Vim3 [Kha25], Huawei Ascend CPUs
[Cor25b], Arm Cortex-M55 [Arm25b], Arm Ethos-N78 [Arm25a].
The list of the most popular and widely used AI accelerators with their basic
characteristics is presented in the Appendix.

54
12.3 Future Trends in Hardware for Frugal AI
• Next-Generation Chips:
– Predictions on how processors will evolve to better support AI tasks
with minimal resources.
– Focus on energy efficiency, speed, and computational power.
• Emerging Technologies: Emerging technologies can help stem the gro-
wing resource needs of today’s AIs by bringing new ways of thinking about
and implementing computing algorithms. Among these emerging tech-
nologies, quantum and neuromorphic computing offer a seemingly more
sustainable alternative to “classical” deep learning.
Quantum computing: leveraging quantum superposition and entanglement
phenomena offers an approach to computing where all possible results of
a given calculation can be done in a single step, whereas they should be
treated sequentially with classical computers. This should allow tremen-
dous speed-up of computation, allowing to tackle problems that are prac-
tically impossible to address by using classical computing. Numerous re-
search works aim at rethinking machine learning in the light of quantum
computing [ZMHS23]. Another appealing property of quantum comput-
ing is related to the fact that quantum computing systems use energy
in a very different way than classical computers. Quantum computing is
very low in terms of energy consumption. The main energy cost in quan-
tum computer systems is due the cryogenic cooling [VLB+ 20], since it
must operate at low temperature (close to the near absolute zero). If for
classical computers, the energy cost scales roughly linearly with computa-
tional power, increasing the number of qubits by several orders does not
necessarily require increasing the cooling energy. As a consequence, the
energy cost of a quantum system scales much more slowly with respect to
computation capabilities than classical systems.
Neuromorphic computing can be seen as the association of spiking neu-
ral networks (SNN) [NCCC22, LFGA23] and efficient devices like mem-
ristors [XGJ+ 24], both drawing inspiration from brains. In contrast to
”classical” neural networks (DNN - Deep Neural Networks), SNNs are
event-driven neurons, emitting a spike (an impulsion) when their internal
potential, driven by incoming spikes, reaches a certain value. A spiking
neuron needs energy only during a spike emission. Altogether, a spiking
neuron constitutes both a memory and a computation unit. This allows
breaking the Von Neumann bottleneck by drastically reducing the en-
ergy required to transfer data and speeding up data processing. At a low
level, memristors are used to implement spiking neurons in an extremely
energy-efficient way. Due to their dynamical behaviour, SNNs are also
particularly adapted to real-time analysis (e.g., [VSMK+ 22]). Methods
allowing transformations from DNN to SNN are available in [BFD+ 22]
and its references. Many architectures inspired by the DNN have been

55
 designed using SNN-like convolutional layers [XDS20] or even attention
layers and transformers [LLY22]. However, the recent progress in neurol-
ogy and in the identification of neural circuits in brains (see Section 11)
may open many new opportunities to draw inspiration from the small and
efficient substructures found in real neural systems.

• Custom AI Chips:
– Trend towards ASICs designed specifically for AI in embedded sys-
tems.
– Companies like Tenstorrent, Mythic, and Hailo with their unique
offerings.

56
13 AI optimizations

Contents
13.1 Model Compression Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.2 Hardware Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . 59
13.3 Algorithmic Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . 62
13.4 Deployment Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . 64
13.5 Data efficiency methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Authors (alphabetical order): Romain Carbou, Frédéric Guyard,

Thomas Hassan, Paweł Piotrowski, Krzysztof Sapiejewski, Tamara
Tosic

The great success of Deep Learning methods [LBH15] in numerous domains

comes with the two major drawbacks: availability of computing power and of
the vast quantity of training data. Frugal approaches are diametrically op-
posed to Deep Learning methods. In this section, we review some optimization
approaches that have been proposed in the literature to enforce frugality in
Deep Learning. Model compression techniques (see 13.1) are used to decrease
the memory footprint and computational complexity of deep learning models.
Hardware optimization techniques (see 13.2) aim at defining dedicated hardware
solutions in order to enhance computational efficiency, reduce latency, and mini-
mize energy consumption, whereas deployment techniques (see 13.4) address the
optimization of resource deployment. Algorithmic optimization techniques (see
13.3) tackle the learning process and are used when training and inference tasks
have limited compute resources. Finally, data-efficiency methods (see 13.5) are
crucial, especially if datasets are non-accessible (rare, expensive, or private).

13.1 Model Compression Techniques

Considering the cost of AI systems (see section 7) with deep neural-based mod-
els, optimizing the model itself may help decrease the infrastructure cost, the
training or retraining and inference costs, or even the deployment cost. Model
compression techniques are an umbrella under which several different approaches
are undertaken in order to reduce these costs. These techniques aim at decreas-
ing one or several of the technical metrics given in Figure 9 while simultaneously
maintaining the model performances (accuracy, precision, ...). These metrics
are, however, not independent. For instance, decreasing the FLOPS (floating
point operations, roughly the number of additions and multiplications), evalu-
ating the computational complexity of the model may increase the number of
costly memory accesses, increasing the backward and forward latency.
Over the last decades, many model compression strategies have been pro-
posed in the literature and good general surveys are available like for instance
[XHJ24, Men23, MPMF23] or [MSL23]. Surveys are also available dedicated

57
Figure 9: Main model metrics addressed by model optimization techniques for
deep neural models.

compression methods applied to AI models with specific structures like Con-

volutional Neural Networks [LMM+ 23], Transformers [TWG+ 24] or with spe-
cific tasks like image classification [RAK23] or large language machine [XM23,
ZLL+ 24]. The main available strategies can be categorized as:

• Quantization: In a typical deep neural network model, weights, gra-

dients, and activations are typically represented as 32-bit floating point
numbers, a precision level resulting in high power consumption and high
memory resource requirement. Quantization methods aim at replacing
these high-precision values by more compact ones (16-bits, 8-bits, ternary
or binary), reducing memory footprint and/or by more efficient ones, e.g.
logarithmic quantization allowing replacing costly multiplications by bit-
shift operations [LCMB16]. Surveys of these techniques can be found in
[Cor24, GKD+ 22] or [XHJ24].
• Pruning: Removing unimportant neurons and connections (unstructured
pruning) or even full substructures (e.f. channels or filters in CNN, at-
tention heads in transformers) or layers (structured pruning) in order to
decrease the memory footprint and the computational complexity of a
model. Accounts on pruning methods can be found in [CZS24, VA22] or
[HX24] for CNN-based models.

• Low-Rank Approximation: Approximating high-rank matrices with

low-rank counterparts to reduce memory footprint and/or computational

58
 complexity. These methods typically leverage singular value decompo-
sition, matrix factorization, or tensor decomposition. Surveys of these
approaches can be found in [XHJ24, OCZL23] or [PGS21].
• Knowledge Distillation: Using a large and complex model (the teacher)
to train a smaller and simpler one (the student). The distillation process
can be performed during the training of the teacher (online distillation) or
using the pre-trained teacher (offline distillation). Good accounts of this
type of method can be found in [MBDL24] or [XHJ24].
• Neural Architecture Search (NAS): For a given task and a given
dataset, use an algorithm to automate the search of optimally compact
and efficient artificial neural networks performing as well or even outper-
forming hand-crafted neural network architectures. Recent surveys can be
found in [CVEVS23, EMH19, WSS+ 23].

Although these methods are the most commonly used, other approaches are
also proposed. For instance, in order to minimize the memory footprint of large
weight matrices, sparse representation like weight sharing aims at transform-
ing many similar parameters with a single connection into a single weight with
multiple connections [MG23]. Other approaches referred to as lightweight
design propose to replace standard structures with simpler and more efficient
ones. For instance, dilated convolution [YK16]. Furthermore, all these previous
methods can be used alone, in combinations, or associated with other ones. For
instance, regularization techniques [TQNS21] can be used to enforce sparsity in
model parameters in combination with pruning.

13.2 Hardware Optimization Techniques

Hardware optimization techniques in artificial intelligence (AI) are pivotal in
enhancing computational efficiency, reducing latency, and minimizing energy
consumption. These techniques encompass various strategies, each contributing
uniquely to the performance of AI systems.

13.2.1 Specialized Hardware Accelerators:

The development of hardware accelerators, such as Graphics Processing
Units (GPUs), Tensor Processing Units (TPUs), and Field-Program-
mable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), has been instrumental in optimizing AI work-
loads. These accelerators are designed to handle the parallel processing demands
of AI algorithms, thereby improving throughput and energy efficiency. For in-
stance, FPGAs offer customizable hardware solutions that can be tailored for
specific AI applications, providing a balance between performance and flexibil-
ity. [SSEM19], [Bha21]
In certain high-performance or high-efficiency use cases, the co-design of
hardware and software can encompass the creation of dedicated hardware ac-
celerators (Application Specific Integrated Circuits – ASICs) for the particular

59
AI model. By tailoring software algorithms to leverage specific hardware fea-
tures, and vice versa, this technique achieves efficient execution of AI tasks.
For example, optimizing models for specific hardware platforms, such as Intel
Xeon processors, can lead to significant performance gains [ASY+ 22]. This ap-
proach is the most efficient but entails a high degree of investment and technical
knowledge.

Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) [Lia25] are custom-

designed integrated circuits tailored for specific applications, offering optimized
performance, reduced power consumption, and enhanced efficiency compared
to general-purpose hardware. They are usually created from the ground up,
based on the specific needs of the application they are intended for. On 10,
existing types of ASICs [Can24] are illustrated. Examples of ASICs span various
domains, including:

• Telecommunications: ASICs are employed in network routers and switches

to handle specific protocols and data processing tasks, enabling high-speed
data transmission and efficient network traffic management.

• Consumer Electronics: Devices such as smartphones, digital cameras,

and gaming consoles utilize ASICs to manage specific functions like signal
processing, power management, and audio encoding/decoding, contribut-
ing to enhanced performance and reduced power consumption.

• Automotive Industry: Modern vehicles incorporate ASICs for various

applications, including engine control units, airbag deployment systems,
and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), ensuring real-time pro-
cessing and increased reliability

13.2.2 Advanced Matrix Extensions (AMX):

Introduced by Intel, AMX is an extension to the x86 instruction set architec-
ture designed to accelerate matrix operations, which are fundamental in AI
and machine learning workloads. AMX enhances computational efficiency by
introducing two-dimensional registers and specialized accelerators for matrix
multiplication, thereby improving performance in AI applications. [Adv24]

13.2.3 Hardware-Based Memory Optimization Techniques:

• High-Bandwidth Memory (HBM): Specialized memory like HBM2
and HBM3 (used in NVIDIA A100, AMD MI300) integrates memory
closely with processing units, providing increased bandwidth and reduces
memory bottlenecks. This proximity allows for faster data transfer rates,
essential for AI tasks that require rapid access to large datasets. Im-
plementations of HBM in AI accelerators have demonstrated significant
performance improvements in deep learning applications. [KP24]

60
 Figure 10: Types of ASICs (figure from [Can24])

• On-Chip Memory Optimization: AI accelerators like TPUs, FPGAs,

and ASICs reduce reliance on external memory by using on-chip SRAM
or eDRAM, decreasing memory access latency. [BBB24]

• Memory Hierarchy Optimization: Advanced caching mechanisms and

memory prefetching techniques (e.g., L1/L2 cache optimizations in AI
chips) improve data access speeds. [Vai25]
• Specialized Memory Architectures: Custom memory designs, such
as those utilizing metal-oxide combinations in RRAM, offer non-volatile
storage solutions with high endurance and speed. These characteristics are
beneficial for AI applications requiring persistent storage and rapid data
retrieval. Research into metal-oxide RRAM has highlighted its potential
in neuromorphic computing and AI hardware acceleration.[Han23]
• Processing-in-Memory (PIM): Emerging PIM architectures integrate
processing units directly within memory modules, minimizing data move-
ment overhead. Recent advances in PIM have shown promise in optimiz-
ing analogue AI computations, particularly through the use of resistive
random-access memory (RRAM) technologies. [LWZ+ 23]
• Hardware-Assisted Mixed Precision Support: Modern GPUs (e.g.,
NVIDIA Tensor Cores) and AI ASICs (e.g., Google’s TPUs) provide na-
tive support for lower-precision computations (FP16, INT8) to optimize
memory usage. [RN22]
• Accelerator-Driven Data Arrangement: Optimizing data placement
and access patterns in memory can significantly reduce runtime for AI

61
 models. Techniques that align data organization with the architecture of
hardware accelerators have been shown to minimize off-chip data access,
thereby enhancing performance in transformer-based models. [AAA23]
For a comprehensive understanding of these hardware optimization tech-
niques and their applications, several literature reviews provide in-depth anal-
yses. [ADC+ 24], [Lia24] , [Li24]. These resources collectively elucidate the
critical role of hardware optimization in advancing AI capabilities, particularly
in environments with stringent resource constraints.

13.3 Algorithmic Optimization Techniques

There are two main algorithm optimization approaches: increasing the efficiency
of training or inference. The major training optimization methods are:
• Distributed Learning over decentralized hardware has become an im-
portant challenge with the emergence of powerful personalized equipment,
capable to train and/or execute various applications on-the-chip (Internet-
of-Things or smartphone devices). We distinguish two major approaches:
Federated and Split Learning. Federated Learning [KMY+ 17], [KMRR16],
[BMR+ 17] has emerged as a key solution to reduce the need for centralized
data gathering and training. This collaborative and iterative approach
builds a common global model. The model benefits from local knowledge
learned on private data, without sharing data with third parties. Split
learning methods [GR18] are deployed when data labels are delocalized
from data gathering equipment, or if the capacity of the training device is
not sufficient to execute a single iteration. Recently, the hybrid methods
[LYZ+ 23] have emerged. They benefit jointly from the advantages of split
and federated learning.
• Meta-learning methods [TP98], [HAMS20a] belong to the class of learn-
ing algorithms whose performance increases not only with the number of
training samples, but also with the number of (potentially related) learn-
ing tasks. This concept (learning to learn) is similar to the animal learning
process (learning biases and generalizations, given a few examples), which
improves the data and computation efficiency.
• Reinforcement Learning (LR) [SB18], [KLM96] maximizes the total
reward of the agent over interactions with uncertain and complex environ-
ment. The two threads represent the trial-and-error learning system and
optimal control. In certain cases, it is possible to simplify the calculus
load or minimize the latency or energy consumption by splitting a single
agent into multiple agents [Lit94], or by their spatial distribution. The
very recent developments in GenAI in combination with the emergence of
Agentic AI [DHW+ 24] lean on the RL approaches to minimize the overall
calculus energy. The open question remains if the former two methods
cost less than simpler but equivalent Machine Learning approaches that
can not generalize to multiple tasks.

62
• Self-supervised learning (SSL) grasps the dependencies between its
inputs from a large volume of unlabelled instances. This is one of the
human-level intelligence factors, and its principles are used to train early
NN networks [BLP+ 07], [HOT06]. SSL learns discriminative features by
automatically generating pseudo-labels. One way to create these labels
is by data-augmentation: building the transformations of a single sample
(so-called dictionary) and aligning it to similar or dissimilar samples.
There are four classes of the SSL [BIS+ 23]: Deep Metric Learning (DML),
Self-Distillation, Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) and Masked Im-
age Modeling (MIM). The DML methods train networks to distinguish
sample pairs that are alike in the embedding, and some also perform min-
ing of the similar pairs present in the original dataset. The class of Self-
Distillation algorithms learns the predictor to correctly map the outputs
of the two encoders, which were fed by the two similar (transformations
of the single input) or dissimilar samples. One way to prevent the predic-
tor collapse (prediction of the constant) is to use two predictor networks,
student and teacher. They are updated throughout the training by using
gradient descent (student) and moving average-based weight updates of
the student network (teacher). The CCA is a family of methods that anal-
yses the cross-covariance matrix of variables to infer their relations. For
multivariate and nonlinear CCA, one popular way to do this is to jointly
learn parameters of the two networks with maximally correlated outputs.

• Transfer Learning (TR) [PY10] promotes the lifelong machine learning

knowledge re-usage to minimize the latency and energy used for train-
ing. In general, the transfer of knowledge towards the current task con-
siders already gathered datasets or models trained prior to the current
task. Data-based approaches are focusing on transformations between
datasets (feature-relations, distributions, etc.). Model-based TR initiali-
zes the training model with the existing one (or its adapted version),
which is often trained in domains, tasks, and distributions that are diffe-
rent from the current task. Based on the similarity of the feature space
[WKW16], TR can be split into homogeneous (domain differences are
modelled by bias or conditional distribution corrections) and heteroge-
neous TR. There are globally four TR [PY10]: instance- (heuristic or
hypothesis based instance-weighting methods), feature- (transformation
of the original feature set towards symmetric or asymmetric feature rep-
resentations: augmentation, reduction or alignment of distribution dif-
ferences), parameter- (model and/or parameter transfer of knowledge) or
relational-based methods (transfer of the source-target relationship rules:
spatial or geometric structure, statistics, etc.).
• Multi-task [Car97] is an inductive transfer learning approach that trains
a common model over different tasks. The intuition behind this is that
the generalization of the model improves even if training tasks are not re-
lated. Its training cost is smaller than that of a cumulated sum of per-task

63
 training. The learning complexity of multi-task algorithms varies, ranging
from k-nearest neighbours (sharing the clustering structure[JBV08]), deci-
sion trees [IHM22] (feature subset share), towards backpropagation neural
networks (multiple outputs that share one fully connected hidden layer,
for example). Today, distributed and asynchronous variants of multi-task
learning boost its usage. Moreover, trained models deployable to contin-
ual or active learning may outperform approaches that do not use transfer
learning [RGB+ 19].
• Instance-based methods [AKA91] do not train any model, but rather
use the available dataset for prediction on new data. It is efficient, but in
general less accurate compared to algorithms based on model training. It
is used in cases It is often used in pattern recognition or anomaly detection
fields.
The above list of training techniques that may improve efficiency is not exhaus-
tive. The final choice of the algorithm depends on a set of specific parameters
of a use case (energy consumption, hardware, topology, etc.). Other efficient
techniques exist, such as weakly-supervised or incremental learning.
The outcome of the training is a model that is further deployed on one or
more types of equipment for inference (i.e., detection, classification, prediction,
etc.). The major inference optimization methods are:
• Distributed inference allows for deployment of the trained models on
edge-like equipment to achieve quicker response times, reduced bandwidth
costs, and enhanced data privacy.
• Model compression and approximation: it is possible to use ap-
proximate solutions (i.e., quantized, pruned models) to reduce the overall
computational complexity.

• Other classes of inference accelerations: early exit of inference, infer-

ence cache, or model-specific inference accelerations (CNN, RNN, Trans-
former) [AYW+ 24].

13.4 Deployment Optimization Techniques

13.4.1 Efficient serving strategies
• Serverless Computing: Serverless architectures enable dynamic re-
source allocation, allowing AI models to scale efficiently based on demand.
This approach reduces operational costs and simplifies deployment, par-
ticularly in high-volume applications. [HBS21]

• Cloud-Based Deployment: Utilizing cloud platforms for AI deploy-

ment offers scalability, flexibility, and access to powerful tools and in-
frastructure, which are built to be energy efficient. Best practices in-
clude selecting the appropriate cloud platform, optimizing data storage

64
 and management, implementing robust security measures, and monitor-
ing performance to ensure cost-effectiveness and efficiency [PNS22]
• Multi-tier serving: Deploying lightweight models on edge devices for
rapid responses, while utilizing more comprehensive models on the cloud
for high precision when necessary, is suitable for applications that balance
speed and accuracy, such as speech assistants and mobile AI. [ABA+ 21]

13.4.2 Parallelization, Distributed Training & Inference

Example survey on this topic [VWK+ 20]
• Model Parallelism: Dividing a model across multiple GPUs or TPUs is
beneficial for very large models. [ZLW+ 23]
• Data Parallelism: Distributing input data across multiple processing
units facilitates faster inference. [SLA+ 19]
• Edge-Cloud Hybrid Inference (similar to Multi-tier serving & Load
Balancing Across Distributed Systems): Offloading intensive computa-
tions to the cloud while maintaining lightweight operations at the edge
optimizes performance and resource utilization. [ZLC+ 22]

13.4.3 Scaling strategies

• Adaptive Computation Scheduling: Dynamically allocating compu-
tational resources based on runtime conditions, such as prioritizing criti-
cal tasks or adjusting inference frequency, thereby optimizing latency and
energy use. [BWDS17]
• Load Balancing Across Distributed Systems (similar to Multi-tier
serving & Edge-Cloud Hybrid Inference): Ensuring efficient resource uti-
lization in multi-device or cloud-edge deployments by distributing infe-
rence tasks according to device capacity and network conditions. [KHG+ 17]
• Context-Aware Inference: Leveraging environmental or user-specific
cues to selectively activate model components, reducing unnecessary com-
putation. [TMK17]

13.4.4 Graph substitutions

Each substitution replaces a sub-graph matching a specific pattern with a new
sub-graph that computes the same result. What is worth emphasizing is that
the architecture of the model does not change as a result of these operations.
For example, operator fusion combines multiple operators (e.g., BatchNorm,
ReLU, and Conv) into a single kernel, reducing memory access overhead and
enhancing performance during inference. [SL23]. [FSWC20], [JTW+ 19]

65
13.4.5 Examples of deployment optimization tools and frameworks
They usually mix different techniques, described in the subsections above. These
are, for example:
• TVM (Apache TVM): An end-to-end deep learning compiler that opti-
mizes model execution for different hardware targets (CPU, GPU, FPGA,
and microcontrollers). [Apa25]
• XLA (Accelerated Linear Algebra): A domain-specific compiler for
optimizing TensorFlow and JAX models. [Ope25b]
• OpenVINO: provides graph optimizations, operator fusion, and low-level
execution improvements similar to other compiler-based tools. It targets
specific Intel accelerators (e.g., CPUs, GPUs, FPGAs, VPUs). [Ope25a]
• TensorRT (Nvidia): Converts and optimizes deep learning models for
high-performance inference on NVidia GPUs. [Nvi25b]

• ONNX Runtime: is a cross-platform machine-learning model accelera-

tor [ONN25]

13.5 Data efficiency methods

The choice of the frugal algorithm should take into account the specificities of
input data (i.e., availability of labels for learning, volumes: large/rare dataset,
structure, etc.), its properties (modality, correlations, etc.) and the final usage
(single, multi-task, future transfer learning, etc.).

• Online Learning: This class of algorithms [HSLZ18] learns incrementally

from new data. This allows adaptations in evolving environments without
revisiting past data (for example, change of data distributions).
• Data augmentation: Data storage capacity is sometimes poor. Data
augmentation methods increase the number of samples used in training,
given a modest dataset size. Particular methods range from generative
augmentation, feature-space augmentation, unsupervised augmentation,
or basic transformation functions, see [WWL+ 24] and references within.
Several categorizations are possible, for example, based on the number of
samples used for a new sample generation (individual, multiple, or popu-
lation data augmentation) or based on data-modality (value-, structure-
or value-structure data augmentation).
• Knowledge sharing (i.e., meta learning [HAMS20b], lifelong learning
[RE13], multi-task learning)
• Non-supervised paradigms (i.e., semi-supervised, unsupervised repre-
sentation, reinforcement learning) A major challenge of machine learn-
ing at scale is obtaining the pre-processed, labelled and large dataset

66
 [NLB+ 21]. To overcome this problem, algorithms such as semi-supervised
and transfer learning are used. The former class of approaches increases
the accuracy of the solution with less labelled data, and the latter by
transferring the knowledge from the use-cases relevant to the current one.
• Feature Engineering: Selecting or engineering features that capture
relevant information efficiently.
• Dimensionality reduction: Reducing data from a high-dimensional
space to a lower-dimensional space to reduce computational complexity
while retaining the (most) meaningful features. There exist diverse ap-
proaches, early ones like principal component analysis (PCA) or linear dis-
criminant analysis (LDA) but also nonlinear and multi-dimensional ones
[SVM14].

67
14 Open Questions

Contents
14.1 Does reusability make AI frugal? . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.2 Does fine-tuning make AI frugal ? . . . . . . . . . 69
14.3 Does making an AI sparse make it frugal? . . . . 70
14.4 Should AI be resource-aware to be frugal? . . . . 71
14.5 How to explore effective strategies to circumvent
the potential pitfalls of the rebound effect? . . . . 71
14.6 What social usages could bring to the frugal AI
questioning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.7 Frugal AI as a desirable side-effect of resource-
constrained innovation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.8 Will advancing learning theory result in more fru-
gal AI models? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
14.9 Can complex scalable systems be conceived as Fru-
gal by design? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
14.10 Will very large generative AIs (LLMs) and their
uses one day become frugal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
14.11 Are there ways of thinking about the future of
AI in a constrained environment? . . . . . . . . . 75
14.12 What could be frugal telecom network automation? 75
14.13 Is semantic communication a means to frugal
Agentic communications? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
14.14 Other questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Authors (alphabetical order): Ludovic Arga, Arnaud Braud, Na-

thalie Charbonniaud, Thomas George, Quentin Lampin, Vincent Le-
maire, Pierre Nodet, Tamara Tosic

In this last section, we present open questions and topics that were not cov-
ered in the initial version of this document. These sections may be included
in subsequent versions of the document or remain as open questions. Obvi-
ously, this list is not exhaustive and is intended to encourage the submission of
questions to the research departments of relevant universities or companies.

14.1 Does reusability make AI frugal?

Definition: In order to facilitate the widespread adoption of AI, it is im-
perative to explore approaches that can be readily implemented. A potential
solution lies in the pre-training of AI models that can be either directly reused
or rapidly customized to suit a variety of applications. Rather than developing
a model from scratch, it would be more efficient and “expeditious” to assemble
it from pre-existing components, analogous to the way in which we construct
vehicles (cars, planes, etc.) by incorporating various parts.

68
 Reusability21 can improve the frugality of AI in several ways. Firstly, it pro-
motes cost efficiency by reducing the need for extensive resources when training
new models from scratch. In addition, it offers time savings by allowing devel-
pers to leverage existing solutions, which accelerates deployment. Furthermore,
reusability helps optimize resources, minimizing both computational power and
energy consumption. It also facilitates knowledge transfer, as reusable models
can incorporate previously learned knowledge, improving performance without
incurring additional training costs.
However, reusability may not always lead to frugality in AI. One concern
is overfitting, where a model trained on a specific dataset may not generalize
well to new data, potentially necessitating retraining. There are also mainte-
nance costs associated with outdated or poorly designed reusable components,
which can accumulate over time. Integration challenges may arise when reusing
components from different projects, leading to compatibility issues that require
additional resources to address. Moreover, the quality variability of reusable
models can result in inefficiencies; not all models are of high quality, and using
subpar options can increase long-term costs. Lastly, some applications might
require significant customization of reused models, negating the initial cost sa-
vings.
Training reusable models is related to the challenge of creating models with
strong generalization capabilities. A recent trend to enhance the generalizability
of models, such as Large Language Models (LLMs), involves increasing the
training compute and the size of the training dataset [BMR+ 20]. Although
these approaches may seem fundamentally contrary to frugal principles, the
upfront training cost can be amortized over multiple uses if these models are
reused. Therefore, the trade-off between reusability and frugality should be
considered when training such generalized models. Smaller but reusable pre-
trained models, such as word2vec [MCCD13], should be encouraged.
This illustrates that while reusability has benefits, it can also lead to ineffi-
ciencies in certain contexts, opening up interesting research questions.

14.2 Does fine-tuning make AI frugal ?

Definition: "Fine-tuning" in AI refers to the process of taking a model pre-
trained on a large dataset and making small adjustments to its parameters to
adapt it to a specific, presumably smaller dataset [ZST+ 25, XYL+ 25, CCM21].
The rationale is that the model benefits from the knowledge acquired during
pre-training instead of starting from scratch, while still being tailored to the
task of the smaller dataset.
Fine-tuning can contribute to making AI models more frugal in several ways:
(i) reduced Training Time (fine-tuning a pre-trained model typically requires less
time and computational resources compared to training a model from scratch);
(ii) lower Data Requirements (fine-tuning often requires less data, as the model
21 Maybe reusability is not limited to fine-tuning. In this case, a greater distinction would

have to be made; a point we have not addressed in Sections 14.1 and 14.2.

69
has already learned general features from the pre-training phase); (iii) effi-
ciency in Resource Use (by leveraging existing knowledge, fine-tuned models
can achieve good performance with fewer parameters, leading to lower memory
and energy consumption).
Especially in terms of computational efficiency, several questions arise: (i)
How does the training time for fine-tuning compare to training from scratch
across various model architectures? What factors influence the efficiency of
fine-tuning in terms of convergence speed and resource allocation? (ii) What
strategies can be employed to further reduce data requirements during the fine-
tuning process without sacrificing model performance? (iii) How does fine-
tuning impact the memory and energy consumption of AI models in practical
applications? What are the trade-offs between model size and performance when
fine-tuning pre-trained models for specific tasks?
Note: Will most of the energy consumed by AI in 2025 be devoted to foun-
dation models and fine-tuning even if they only cover part of the application of
machine learning ?
Note 2 about sections 14.2 and 14.1: There are some overlapping ideas: (i)
fine-tuning as part of a re-usability approach: in this case it can be understood
under the prism of frugal AI because it means that one do not have to train
models from scratch on large datasets (ii) fine-tuning as an obligatory step for
LLMs: in this case it is rather ‘anti-frugal’ and this fine-tuning has more of a
rebound effect.

14.3 Does making an AI sparse make it frugal?

Here, we use the following definition of a sparse AI model22 :

Definition: A sparse AI model is a type of machine learning model that has a

reduced number of model parameters or user parameters compared to its dense
counterpart that can achieve the same task and for the same (or very close)
performance.
The creation of an AI sparse model (e.g., using pruning methods, see Sec-
tion 13.1) can result in a more frugal model in terms of resource usage. Sparse
models generally require a reduced number of parameters and less computa-
tional power, which can result in decreased memory and energy consumption.
However, it is important to note that the efficacy of sparsity depends on the
specificity of the application and the model’s ability to maintain performance
despite reduced complexity. We may identify relevant questions and trade-offs
regarding sparsity, particularly for those interested in deploying sparse models
in real-world applications:
1. How does the sparsity level in AI models affect their performance across
different sets of tasks? Are pruning methods task-dependent?
22 Even if all sparse models may not have a dense counterpart.

70
 2. Are sparse models not only computationally more efficient but also more
energy efficient than their dense counterparts? We emphasize this ques-
tion because most of the engineering effort to deploy AI at scale is focused
on dense models, and sparse models require different software architec-
ture and hardware than their dense counterparts. Most notably, CPUs,
instead of GPUs and TPUs, are known for being quite efficient on sparse
computations [CMF+ 20].
3. Are sparse AI models more or less robust to adversarial attacks compared
to their dense counterparts? In particular, gradient-based adversarial at-
tacks are the most effective on dense models and modalities, such as im-
ages, in contrast to discrete modalities, such as textual data [XML+ 20].

4. In which specific domains (e.g., natural language processing, computer

vision) does sparsity provide the most significant benefits?

14.4 Should AI be resource-aware to be frugal?

Definition: “Resource-aware" refers to the ability of a system, application, or
algorithm to recognize and efficiently utilize available resources, such as CPU,
memory, bandwidth, and energy (for example some papers of the Lamarr In-
stitute23 as [DFS+ 23, Bra24] are on this topic). In the not-too-distant past,
this approach to AI was known as ‘ubiquitous learning’ ([CRPA18, YAAJ10]
see [link]).
Being resource-aware allows AI systems to (i) optimize resource utilization
(efficiently allocate CPU, memory, and energy, ...), (ii) adapt to constraints
(adjust operations based on available resources, ...), (iii) fair usage of resources
towards existing other applications in devices.
We may outline the following related questions: (i) What algorithms or tech-
niques can be developed to enhance resource utilization in AI systems without
compromising more or less performance? How do different AI architectures im-
pact resource utilization efficiency, and what best practices can be established?
(ii) How can AI models be designed to dynamically adjust their operations based
on real-time resource availability? What are the implications of resource-aware
adaptations on the accuracy and reliability of AI systems in various applica-
tions? (iii) What (new) metrics can be used to evaluate the sustainability of AI
systems in terms of energy consumption and environmental impact?

14.5 How to explore effective strategies to circumvent the

potential pitfalls of the rebound effect?
Definition: The AI rebound effect is defined as the phenomenon in which the
efficiency or cost savings achieved through the utilisation of artificial intelligence
result in an escalation in the consumption or utilisation of resources [Aze14,
WHW21a, WHW21b].
23 https://lamarr-institute.org/research/resource-aware-ml/

71
 To illustrate this phenomenon, consider a scenario where AI is employed
to enhance a process and reduce expenses. This may result in companies in-
creasing their production or utilising additional resources, thereby negating the
initial environmental or economic advantages. In summary, the rebound effect
underscores the notion that enhancements in efficiency do not inherently ensure
a decrease in overall impact. Interested readers can also consult section 3.3.

14.6 What social usages could bring to the frugal AI ques-

tioning?
In the context of increasing concerns about sustainability and resource efficiency,
there is increasing concern about the use of frugal solutions and the promotion
of low-tech technologies. These approaches advocate for simple, accessible, and
often less costly methods that cater to local needs without necessitating com-
plex infrastructures. By encouraging low-cost innovation and the use of local
resources, these solutions promote greater social and economic inclusion. Fur-
thermore, growing awareness of environmental issues is encouraging consumers
and businesses to adopt solutions that minimize ecological impact, thereby re-
inforcing the acceptability of frugal and low-tech technologies as viable and
responsible alternatives (related works [Gov22]).

14.7 Frugal AI as a desirable side-effect of resource-cons-

trained innovation?
Indeed, the implementation of frugal AI has the potential to result in the emer-
gence of other priorities or requirements that may not have been the primary
focus. To illustrate this point, consider the context of the African market, where
the adoption of frugal AI solutions is driven by specific challenges, including
limited infrastructure, resource constraints, and diverse user needs. In such
contexts, affordability, accessibility, and adaptability may take precedence over
advanced features. Consequently, frugal AI can stimulate innovations tailored
to local conditions, thereby fostering economic development and enhancing ser-
vice delivery in sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, and education. Further-
more, it has the potential to encourage collaboration among local stakeholders,
enhancing community engagement and ensuring that solutions are culturally
relevant and sustainable.

Note: This question is also discussed in Section 5.

14.8 Will advancing learning theory result in more frugal

AI models?
A specificity of the deployment of machine learning systems is that learning the-
ory (i.e., theorems that give guarantees on the predictions made by AI systems
upfront) lags behind the adoption of AI services across industries. This is not

72
unprecedented in the history of technology; another such example is the steam
machine, which drove the acceleration of the industrial revolution in the late
18th century, some 20 years before Carnot and other physicists gave a precise
characterization of the thermodynamic laws in the early 19th century. Return-
ing to machine learning, this raises the question of improved efficiency of AI
systems driven by advances in learning theory.
As an illustrative example, there is a growing research effort toward un-
derstanding the complex interplay between memorization and generalization in
machine learning: generalization refers to the ability to give accurate predictions
on examples that have not been encountered during training, while memoriza-
tion might be required in order to correctly classify rare instances [Fel20], while
also allowing for learning mislabelled examples which are arguably useless in
order to solve the desired task [AJB+ 17, GNBL24]. During training of a ma-
chine learning model, memorization takes the most of the compute time (thus,
energy). This offers room for new strategies to mitigate unwanted memorization
by focusing on better data curation.
Several research groups are examining this issue (see, for example, the [talk
at Institute for Pure & Applied Mathematics (IPAM) of Gintarė Karolina Dži-
ugaitė].

14.9 Can complex scalable systems be conceived as Frugal

by design?
Energy production and consumption are closely related to environmental issues
(air, water and thermal pollution, solid waste disposal, and climate change).
However, the objective of the European Union to achieve carbon neutrality
in 2050 is not achievable only by minimization of electrical energy [GBO24].
To conceive frugal, scalable systems, we need to take into account the energy
production/consumption aspects (devices, network, data centres) jointly with
the eco-friendly device conception and the energy-efficient algorithms.
Two major research challenges linked with the energy consumption in AI
from the perspective of scalable systems are (i) design of unified measures
for energy consumption of various algorithms/hardware and (ii) evolution of
unified measures sideways with new AI approaches and emerging technologies
(edge-computing, quantum computing, generative AI, Agentic AI, or automati-
zation/virtualization of future 6G networks).
Today, there is no unified tool that evaluates the energy consumption as-
pects for all use cases, usages, and data types, even if recent research efforts
partially address this problem (i.e., training and inference evaluations of ML
methods, [RDK+ 24], [TPSG+ 24]). On the one hand, future research should fo-
cus on designing different types of frugal devices and systems from the hardware
perspective (see Section 12 and its references). On the other side, research needs
to design frugal methods that allow for the reuse of the existing resources when-
ever possible (i.e., multi-task training, transfer learning, or few-shot learning
methods). The International standards committee for AI and the environment,

73
among others, points out this duality between energy consumption and AI24 :
AI may consume a lot of energy (for example, deep learning, Generative AI or
Agentic AI). However, it may also reduce the overall carbon footprint due to
the reuse of a trained model in various fields.
Over the last decade, efficient methods at scale have been studied broadly
(applications such as smart cities, connected vehicles, IoT). The energy efficiency
of the algorithm has been shown to reduce the pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions [GBO24] by virtualisation, load balancing or consolidation. However,
virtualization, softwarization and automatization of 5G and future 6G networks
requires rethinking the design and usages of calculus (single data centers, hybrid
or distributed approaches) in future research. Another research question is how
to exploit the interconnection between the Power Grid that powers the networks,
by considering the information on telecommunication network usages, that can
be used to optimize the Power Grid [YQST13], [AGA+ 19]. One example is how
to use the energy metrics to predict the energy source availability, or how to use
the prediction of energy source availability for optimal placement decisions.
The idea is also to think about complex systems that are designed from the
outset to be frugal and scalable. To this end, they should incorporate a list of
‘best practices’. These could include (but are not limited to): (i) minimalism:
reducing unnecessary features and concentrating on essential functionality (ii)
modularity: designing frugal components that can be easily modified or replaced
without revising the whole system. The question is therefore to design a coherent
and shared list of best practices and frugal components.

14.10 Will very large generative AIs (LLMs) and their

uses one day become frugal?
The recent history of the Large Language Model (LLM) may give (instill) the
impression that the larger the artificial intelligence system, the more useful it is.
But this narrative obviously has a limit in terms of energy, material, infrastruc-
ture, network, ...[VLW25, BAB25] The frugality of large-scale generative AI,
(LSGenAI) is therefore an interesting question. This question is multifaceted
since it can address: (i) the cost to pay to train an LSGenAI (ii) the cost to
pay to use an LSGenAI (iii) the situation where LSGenAI are suitable25 (iv)
the sustainability of such AIS (v) all other questions related to the cost of the
infrastructure needed to ‘run’ them ... The purpose here is not how to avoid
an “overshoot and collapse”26 trajectory but rather how to create LSGenAI
frugal by design? How to design them to incorporate some interesting facets
(in a multi-criteria optimization [SDK75]) by design as: (i) efficient architec-
tures: utilizing streamlined model architectures (ii) data efficiency: training on
smaller, high-quality datasets (iii) transfer Learning (iv) quantization (v) sparse
models (vi) energy-efficient hardware...
24 https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/env/T-ENV-ENV-2024-1-PDF-E.pdf
25 Forthe fourth point, we refer the reader to the section 7 of the present document.
26 Inthe frugality context the idea of designing such frugal LSGenAI is not to try to solve
the problem by producing more energy to consume more energy.

74
14.11 Are there ways of thinking about the future of AI
in a constrained environment?
Several scenarios for the ecological transition in 2050 emerge, including a frugal
approach, a scenario focused on territorial cooperation, another focused on green
technologies, and a last one, a repairing scenario. Each of these scenarios is
expected to have different impacts on ecosystems. Consequently, examining the
role of artificial intelligence in these different contexts may lead us to reassess
our perspectives
Surpassing planetary limits and their impact on the climate raises questions
about the sustainability and future robustness of infrastructures and materials
used in AI.

• Which resource will be more critical for the future development of AI:
electricity or rare metals? What are the physical limits of silicon chips,
and how will this affect the future development of AI in a context of energy
constraints?
• What strategies can be implemented to secure energy supply in the face of
upcoming disruptions, particularly concerning AI?
• What tasks or jobs could AI replace in an energy-efficient manner in a
world facing electricity constraints?
• What would tomorrow’s business model be that could take account of these
societal and environmental challenges?
• What would tomorrow’s technologies be able to help in a constrained envi-
ronment?
• How can we think about the impact of AI on society and the planet, by set-
ting out governance principles and thinking about design to impact strate-
gies?

14.12 What could be frugal telecom network automation?

Network automation is seen as a key for operating operator’s infrastructures,
the Telco Management Forum (TMF) has defined 6 levels of automation each
requiring more advanced architecture and technologies than the previous one.
The trend to achieve level 4, is agentification and "LLM everywhere" which
comes at a significant environmental cost. Hence questionable when used for
massive lower level machine to machine communication. While there is already
a strong ongoing effort from an optimisation standpoint with protocols such
as Agora [MMW+ 24] and the ability for agents to bypass LLMs with protocols
such as MCP [HZWW25], some questions will of course remain when considering
sustainable automation :
• What is the right level of automation for sustainable operations ? and
how can we derive it from component performance ?

75
 • What is the most efficient methodology to assess sustainability gains and
impacts of automation ?
• Are there more frugal architectures that would still allow level 4 automa-
tion ?

14.13 Is semantic communication a means to frugal Agen-

tic communications?
Context: Current multi-agent AI systems communicate mainly through con-
ventional formats (JSON, UTF-8 encoded text), limiting their interactions to
human-readable formats. However, these AI systems, particularly Large Lan-
guage Models (LLMs), internally process information in rich semantic vector
spaces. This creates an interesting paradox: while AI agents reason and process
information in structured vector spaces, their communications are constrained
to text-based exchanges.
The AI agent landscape is expected to expand significantly, from personal
agents running on user’s devices (smartphones, tablets) to enterprise-grade
agents handling business operations, and service agents managing customer in-
teractions. These agents will need to operate with increasing degrees of au-
tonomy, making decisions and communicating with other agents to accomplish
tasks without constant human supervision. The widespread deployment and au-
tonomy of AI agents across various scales - from edge devices to cloud services
- adds another dimension to the challenges of communication..

Hypothesis & Definition: It is hypothesised that future AI agent commu-

nications will evolve beyond text-based exchanges towards Semantic Communi-
cations, where agents directly transmit semantic representations (embeddings)
through telecommunication networks. Semantic Communication involves the
exchange of these structured vector representations that AI models use inter-
nally for processing information. This hypothesis is motivated by the nature of
LLM processing, which occurs in structured vector spaces, and the limitations
of current text-based communications in capturing the full semantic richness
of AI representations. We therefore envision the emergence of new semantic
"languages" shared between AI models, borrowing from those in-model repre-
sentation spaces.
The adoption of semantic representations for inter-agent communications
presents both opportunities and challenges for network frugality. On the one
hand, these representations might enable more efficient and compact exchanges
between AI agents, as semantic embeddings can encode complex meanings in
structured ways, potentially reducing the number of exchanges needed for ef-
fective communication. On the other hand, the high-dimensionality of such
representations (typically tens of KBytes per embedding) raises concerns about
the network bandwidth required to support these communications, particularly
in scenarios involving frequent exchanges between multiple autonomous agents
at scale.

76
Open Research Questions:
• How can telecommunication networks efficiently support semantic com-
munications between autonomous agents at scale?
• Can we develop specific encodings for semantic representations, similar to
how audio and video codecs optimize media transmissions?
• What are the trade-offs between semantic fidelity and communication ef-
ficiency when compressing embeddings for inter-agent communication?
• What metrics can be developed to evaluate both the frugality and effec-
tiveness of semantic communications?

• How can we ensure interoperability between different AI models and their

semantic representations?

14.14 Other questions

This list of questions is obviously not exhaustive. If readers are interested
in raising other ones, feel free to contact Nathalie Charbionnaud or Vincent
Lemaire ([email protected]).

77
Abbreviations:

• AI: Artificial Intelligence

• CPU: Central Process Unit

• DC: Data Center

• EPM: External Power Meter
• GHG: Green House Gas
• GPU: Graphics Processing Unit

• LLM: Large Language Model

• ML: Machine Learning
• NN: Neural Networks

• RAM: Random Access Memory

• TPU: Tensor Processing Unit

78
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