

Fluid Mechanics for

Chemical Engineering

Chapter-1
FLUID AND ITS PROPERTIES

By: Mekdim A.

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 Outline
1. FLUID AND ITS PROPERTIES
 Introduction
 Concept of shear stress
 Properties of fluid
 Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids
 Units and conversion
2. FLUID STATIC
3. PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
4. INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW IN DUCT
5. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND PHYSICAL SIMILARITY
6. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

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 Introduction
 Mechanics is concerned with the motion of bodies under the
action of forces, including the special case in which a body
remains at rest.
 Engineering mechanics is the application of mechanics to
solve problems involving common engineering elements.

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 Fluid mechanics
 is a branch of applied mechanics that is concerned with the
statics and dynamics of liquids and gases.
 There are two major aspects of fluid mechanics which differ
from solid-body mechanics.
 The nature and properties of the fluid itself.
 Instead of dealing with individual bodies or elements of known
mass, we are concerned with a continuous stream of fluid, without
beginning or end.

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 Objective of the course

 Study basic principles of static and dynamic behaviors of

a fluid
 Solve fluid mechanics problems in applicable process
industries.

 In addition apply the principle of fluid flow in various chemical

engineering unit operations.

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 ventilating buildings
Laminar and turbulent
water flow over the hull of air-cooled heat exchangers
a submarine.

Airplane wing passing through

7 cooling towers colored smoke
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Complex pipe line networks
 Some application areas of fluid
mechanics

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 Application of fluid mechanics
 Extremely important in many areas of Engineering and science.
 Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries and veins
 Air flow in the lungs
 Flow of cerebral fluid
 Households
 Piping systems for cold water, natural gas and sewage.
 Piping and ducting network of heating and air conditioning systems.
 Refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, water meter.
 Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
 Movements of air currents and water currents

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 Application
 Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-condition equipment
 Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, jet engines, wind turbines,
cooling of electronic components.
 Civil Engineering
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
 Design of piping system
 Flood control systems

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 Application

 Almost everything in our world is either in contact with fluid or

is itself a fluid.
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 Interesting facts
 Fluid mechanics remains a core component of engineering
education.
 Early engineers, perhaps two millennia in the past, concerned
with the efficient delivery of a water supply dependent upon open
channel flows.
 Turbulence as the most important unsolved problem in classical
physics.
 Werner Heisenberg was asked what he would ask God, given the
opportunity. His reply was:
"When I meet God, I am going to ask him two questions:Why relativity? And
why turbulence? I really believe he will have an answer for the first."

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 Chemical Engineering
 Chemical Engineering is a group of industrial processes in
which row materials are changed or separated into useful
products.
 Historical development: As the Industrial Revolution steamed
along certain basic chemicals quickly became necessary to
sustain growth.
 Late 1800’s: batch operations, small scale.
 In the early 1900’s: largescale production of chemicals.
 Continuous production
 Economical, efficient and rapid processes

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 Unit operations
Chemical Engineering:

- to design the most optimal technology

for production of a specified substance
from row materials
- to develop and discover new
technological applications for materials

Unit Operations
- is a method of analysis and design of
chemical engineering processes in terms of
individual tasks/operations
- A unit operation: basic step in a chemical
engineering process
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 Process flowsheet: Example 1

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 Process flowsheet: Example 2

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 Comparison of two processes

Units: Actions:

- Heaters/heat exchangers - Heat exchange

- Pumps - Material transport
- Distillation units - Separation
- Reactors - Mixing
-… -…
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 Unit Operations: Classification
Fluid flow processes
Thermodynamic processes
- fluid transport
- liquifaction
- solids fluidization
- refrigeration
- mixing
Mechanical processes
Heat transfer processes
(Thermal unit operations)
- crushing
- sieving
- heating/cooling
- solid transportation
- evaporation/condensation
- distillation

Mass transfer processes

- absorption
- distillation
- extraction
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- adsorption
- drying
 Application in chemical engineering
 Direct application
 Fluid transportation
 Complex pipe line networks
 Piping, fittings, valves, pumps, blowers and compressors

 Flow measurement
 Flow rates of streams
 Pressure measuring device

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 Mixing
 How to make mixing effective
 Impeller design
 Power required

 Packed bed reactors

 Enhance the surface area of contact
 Determine the rate of reaction
 Power required to pump the gas

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 Fluidized bed reactor
 Fluidized
 Drag force > Mg

 Multiphase flow
 Gas in liquid phase
 Bubble column reactor

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 Fluid mechanics overview

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 Fluids
 In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter: solid,
liquid and gas.
 Liquids and gases are fluids, lacking the ability of solids to
offer permanent resistance to a deforming force.
 Fluids flow under the action of forces, deforming
continuously for as long as the force is applied.
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under
the action of shearing forces, however small they may
be.

If a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting

and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular
26 to the planes upon which they act.
 1.2 Concept of shear stress
 Although there can be no shear stress in a fluid at rest, shear
stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion.
 If the particles of the fluid move relative to each other so that
they have different velocities, causing the original shape of
the fluid to become distorted.

Variation of velocity with distance from a

solid boundary
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  Suppose that in time t a particle at E moves through a
distance x. If E is a distance y from AD then, for small angles

Newton’s law of viscosity

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 Stress tenser

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 Material and partial derivative

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  The Partial Time Derivative ∂c /∂ t
 The time rate of change of the concentration at a fixed location
(x, y, z const.) (∂ /∂ t).
 The Total Time Derivative dc /dt
 Suppose that we speed around on the river, sometimes going
upstream, sometimes downstream, and sometimes across the
current.

 The Substantial Time Derivative Dc /Dt

 we just float along with the current observing the
concentration. In this situation the velocity of the observer is
the same as the velocity ν of the stream, which has components
νx , νy and νz .

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Concept of viscosity

 Friction is felt only when you move either slower or faster

than the other passengers.
 The extent of friction depends on the type of clothes they are
wearing.
 It is this type of clothes that gives rise to the concept of
viscosity.
Example of two parallel plates

• Top layer stationary,

• Bottom layer moves with constant velocity V
• A fluid is filled between the plates
• No slip condition between fluid and plates at both the plate surfaces
• Flow is laminar

Shear force acting on the second

molecular layer of fluid is due to
the difference in the velocities of
the two adjacent layers
 Concept of Shear Stress
 Stress:-force per unit area, and is determined by dividing the
force by the area upon which it acts.
 Normal stress- the normal component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
 Shear stress- the tangential component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
 Fluids in motion may have additional normal stresses, but
when a fluid is at rest, the only normal stress is the pressure.

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 Types of stress Area of
Focus

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Shear stress
 Stress filed

The stress at a point

has 9 components
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 Differences between solids and fluids
 For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress,
provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
 For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied
stress.
 The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which
the force is applied and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded,
the deformation disappears when the force is removed.
 A fluid continues to flow for as long as the force is applied
and will not recover its original form when the force is
removed.

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 Solids

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 Liquid and gases

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 Shear stress
 develops when fluid in motion.
 Particles move relative to each other that have different
velocities.

 If velocity of fluid is the same at every point, the condition

has no shear stress.

 Similarly, if the fluid is at rest there is no shear stress.

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 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey refer
Fluid Newton’s law Newtonian fluids
of viscosity

Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by; Example:

Air
du Water
 (1.1) Oil
Gasoline
dy Alcohol
Kerosene
 = shear stress Benzene
 = viscosity of fluid Glycerine
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient

• The viscosity  is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
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Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey

Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian

of viscosity fluids

• The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the

velocity gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
 a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of
shear),
 the slope is constant
 the viscosity is constant

non-Newtonian fluids
 slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies

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 Non-Newtonian fluids
 Rheology

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 Flow behavior of Non-Newtonian fluid

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  Plastic for which the shear stress must reach a certain minimum value
before flow commences. Thereafter, shear stress increases with the rate
of shear according to the relationship

Where A, B and n are constants. If n = 1, the material is known as a Bingham

plastic (e.g. sewage sludge).

 Pseudo-plastic, for which dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of

shear increases (e.g. colloidal solutions, clay, milk, cement).

 Dilatant substances, in which dynamic viscosity increases as the rate

of shear increases (e.g. quicksand).

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  Thixotropic substances, for which the dynamic viscosity
decreases with the time for which shearing forces are applied
(e.g. thixotropic jelly paints).

 Rheopectic materials, for which the dynamic viscosity

increases with the time for which shearing forces are applied.

 Viscoelastic materials, which behave in a manner similar

to Newtonian fluids under time-invariant conditions but, if
the shear stress changes suddenly, behave as if plastic.
The above is a classification of actual fluids. Ideal
fluid is assumed to have no viscosity.

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 Models for describing the mechanical behavior
 Linear viscoelastic models
 Elements representing the solid and the fluid nature

- Spring -Dashpot
. Elastic behavior Viscous
. behavior
. Time dependence
. No time dependence
. Response can be described with
. Response can be described with
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 Non-Newtonian fluid

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 Importance of time scale

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 Dimensionless number

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 Molecular structure of materials
Solids, liquids and gases are
all composed of molecules in
continuous motion.

However, the arrangement of

these molecules, and the
spaces between them differ.

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  If two pieces of the same material are far apart, there is no
detectable force exerted between them. Thus, the forces
between molecules are negligible when widely separated and
tend to zero as the separation tends towards infinity.
 Two pieces of the same material can be made to weld
together if they are forced into very close contact. Under
these conditions, the forces between the molecules are
attractive when the separation is very small.
 Very large forces are required to compress solids or liquids,
indicating that a repulsive force between the molecules must
be overcome to reduce the spacing between them.

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 Kinetic energy and Free energy

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 1.5 The continuum concept of a fluid
 Although the properties of a fluid arise from its molecular
structure, engineering problems are usually concerned with
the bulk behavior of fluids.
 Quantities such as velocity and pressure can then be
considered to be constant at any point, and changes due to
molecular motion may be ignored.
 Variations in such quantities can also be assumed to take
place smoothly, from point to point.

The arrangement in a metal closest packing efficiently fills up 52-74% of

space.

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Levels at which transport phenomena
can be studied
The transport properties that are described by molecular theory
are used at the microscopic level.
The equations developed at the microscopic level are needed in
order to provide some input into problem solving at the
macroscopic level.
 2. Properties of Fluid
Density or Mass Density [symbol: ρ(rho)]:
 It is the ratio of mass of fluid to its volume
Where m = mass and v = volume.
The common units used of density are (kg/m3),
(g/cm3), (lb/ft3).
• The density of liquids may be considered as constant while
that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.
The density of a substance is that quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the
substance.

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 Specific Weight
 the ratio between the weights of a fluid to its volume.

 The common units used of density are (N/m3),

(dyne/cm3), (lbf/ft3).

 Specific volume
 the ratio of volume of fluid to its mass (or mole); it is the
reciprocal of its density.

 The common units used of density are (m3/kg), (cm3/g),

(ft3/lb).
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 Specific Gravity:
 the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water
@4°C

SG 
H 2O
 Gases have low specific gravities.

 A liquid such as Mercury has a high specific gravity.

 The ratio is unit-less.

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 Dynamic viscosity [symbol: μ]
• defined as the shear force per unit area (or shear stress τ)
required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past
another layer a unit distance away from it in the fluid.
• It is important in determining amount of fluids that can be
transported in a pipeline during a specific period of time
determining energy losses.

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 Kinematic viscosity
 The kinematic viscosity ν is defined as the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to mass density:

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 Causes of viscosity in gases
 As the molecules of gas are not rigidly constrained, and
cohesive forces are small, there will be a continuous
interchange of molecules between adjacent layers which are
travelling at different velocities.
 Molecules moving from the slower layer will exert a drag on
the faster, while those moving from the faster layer will exert
an accelerating force on the slower.

If the temperature of a gas increases, the

molecular interchange will increase.The
viscosity of a gas will, therefore, increase as
the temperature increases.

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 Causes of viscosity in liquids
 There are substantial attractive, cohesive forces between the
molecules of a liquid. Both molecular interchange and
cohesion contribute to viscous shear stress in liquids.
 The effect of increasing the temperature of a liquid is to
reduce the cohesive forces while simultaneously increasing
the rate of molecular interchange. The net result is that
liquids show a reduction in viscosity with increasing
temperature.

Effect of temperature

Effect of pressure
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 Surface tension
 A molecule within the body of the liquid is, on average,
attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules
surrounding it.
 At the surface between liquid and air, or the interface
between one substance and another, the upward and
downward attractions are unbalanced, the surface molecules
being pulled inward towards the bulk of the liquid.
 This effect causes the liquid surface to behave as if it were an
elastic membrane under tension.

The surface tension σ is measured as the force acting across the unit length of a line
drawn in the surface.
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  The effect of surface tension is to reduce the surface of a free
body of liquid to a minimum, since to expand the surface
area molecules have to be brought to the surface from the
bulk of the liquid against the unbalanced attraction pulling
the surface molecules inwards.
 For this reason, drops of liquid tend to take a spherical shape
in order to minimize surface area. For such a small droplet,
surface tension will cause an increase of internal pressure p in
order to balance the surface force.

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  Considering the forces acting on a diametric plane through a
spherical drop of radius r, the
Force due to internal pressure
Force due to surface tension around the perimeter
For equilibrium,

If r is very small, the value of p becomes very large. For small bubbles in a liquid, if this pressure
is greater than the pressure of vapor or gas in a bubble, the bubble will collapse.

In many of the problems with which engineers are concerned, the magnitude of surface tension forces is
very small compared with the other forces acting on the fluid and may, therefore, be neglected.

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 Capillarity Action
 If a fine tube, open at both ends, is lowered vertically into a
liquid which wets the tube, the level of the liquid will rise in
the tube.
 If the liquid does not wet the tube, the level of liquid in the
tube will be depressed below the level of the free surface
outside.

Capillary action is the ability

of a liquid to flow up a thin
tube against the influence of
gravity.

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 Cavitation
 Under certain conditions, areas of low pressure can occur locally
in a flowing fluid.
 If the pressure in such areas falls below the vapour pressure, there
will be local boiling and a cloud of vapour bubbles will form this
phenomenon is known as cavitation .
 The flow of liquid can sweep this cloud of bubbles on into an area
of higher pressure where the bubbles will collapse suddenly. A
very serious damage can result due to the very large force with
which the liquid hits the surface.
 Cavitation can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such
as pumps, turbines and propellers, and the impact of collapsing
bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surfaces.

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 Bulk Modulus
 The ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
 Measure of how pressure compresses the volume/density

Units of the bulk modulus are N/m2 (Pa) and lb/in2(psi).

Large values of the bulk modulus indicate incompressibility

Incompressibility indicates large pressures are needed to compress the volume slightly.
Most liquids are incompressible for most practical engineering problems.
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 Compressibility
 Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its
change in volume under the action of external forces.
 It is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity.
 Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid,
diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.

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 Units and Conversion
 While a dimension expresses a specific type of physical
quantity, a unit assigns a number so that the dimension can be
measured.

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Thank You!!!