●​ Ksp = [A+]^a + [B-]^b

○​ Ksp =Solubility product constant

○​ A+ and B- = cation & anion in aqueous solution
○​ a & b = coefficients
○​ The higher Ksp is, the more soluble substance is
○​ If Qsp > than Ksp → precipitate should form ; vice versa. No precipitate =
solution is unsaturated. If they’re equal, solution is at equilibrium (saturated)
○​ If salts have the same number of ions in solution, their solubility is
proportional to Ksp^(1/n), where n is the total number of ions.
○​ Ex: What is the solubility product constant for MgF2?
■​ The relevant equilibrium is MgF2(s) ⇌ Mg^2+ (aq) + 2F- (aq)
■​ Ksp = [Mg^2+] [F-]^2
○​ Ex: molar solubility of Ca(OH)2 w/ Ksp of 5 *10^-6?
■​ (x)(2x)^2 = 4x^3 → 5*10 ^-6 = 4x^3 → x = 0.011 M
■​ Smaller molar solubility has a smaller Ksp value

●​ Kc = ([C]^c [D]^d)/ [A]^a [B]^b when system is AT equilibrium

○​ Kc or Qc = equilibrium constant
○​ A & B= reactants
○​ C & D = products
○​ [A] = equilibrium concentration of A
■​ K>1, products are favored
■​ K<1, reactants are favored
■​ K = 1, neither are favored
■​ K goes to infinity, reaction is one way/”irreversible”
○​ If temperature of system increases and endothermic reaction → K increases
○​ If temperature of system increases and exothermic reaction → K decreases
○​ If temperature of system decreases and endothermic reaction → K decreases
○​ If temperature of system decreases and exothermic reaction → K increases
○​ Increase Pressure (P) → favors side with fewer moles of gas
○​ Decrease P → favors side with more moles of gas
○​ If you add more reactants, the system will shift toward the product side, and vice versa.
Fill the burette with titrant (known concentration); Add analyte (unknown concentration) to a conical flask and add a few drops of an
indicator; Slowly add titrant to the analyte while swirling the flask; Observe the color change of the indicator, which shows the
endpoint; Note the initial and final volumes of titrant in the burette; Use m1v1=m2v2 to calculate the concentration of the analyte
(unknown solution).
SNAP: sodium nitrate ammonium potassium (soluble). -If its not SNAP on the product side, then reaction does
occur. -Precipitate has to form for reaction to occur -Aq (reactant) to aq (product) = no reaction -In the
halogen group, the order of decreasing electron affinity is Cl > F > Br > I
●​ Q = reactant quotient - same equation except at ANY point during reaction
○​ Q = K, system is at equilibrium
○​ K<Q, system goes left, favoring reactants bc too many products
○​ K>Q, the reaction goes right, favoring products bc too many reactants
●​ Kp = Kc(RT)^n where (change in n = moles of gas products - moles of gas reactants), (R is 0.0821
Latm/Kmol) and (temp)
●​ RICE Table → to find equilibrium concentration: evaluated when system is at equilibrium
○​ Change → just coefficients as x ; Equilibrium, initial +/- coefficient
■​ If no values, can use the equilibrium expression in RICE table and input into Kc equation
to solve for x → find final equilibrium
●​ Common ion effect: the solubility of a salt is reduced when it is dissolved into a solution that already contains
one of the ions present in the salt
○​ Ex: HCl added to NaCl → drive solution towards reactant, causing NaCl precipitate out. increases
Cl⁻ concentration, shifting equilibrium left and reducing NaCl solubility
○​ Ex: If you dissolve AgCl in a solution that already contains Cl⁻ ions (e.g., from NaCl), the solubility
of AgCl will be lower because of the increased concentration of Cl⁻ ions, which shifts the
equilibrium to favor the solid form of AgCl.
●​ pKa is the acid dissociation constant = -log10Ka w
○​ Smaller value → stronger acid
●​ Ka and Kb is acid/ base dissociation constant, higher value → higher value, stronger acid/base
●​ Strong acids have a very low pKa (less than 0), and strong bases have a very high pKb.
○​ Ka = [H3O+][A-] / [HA]. General Kb expressions take the form Kb = [BH+][OH-] / [B]
○​ Strong acids and bases dissociate completely
●​ pH= PKa + log [A-]/[HA] → HA= weak acid, A- = conjugate base. (Henderson-Hasselbalch equation).
●​ Combustion: hydrocarbon + oxygen → co2 + h2o (oxygen is ALWAYS on reactant side - Complete
combustion produces CO₂ and H₂O, while incomplete combustion might produce CO (carbon monoxide) or
C (soot)).
●​ Acid-Base Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
●​ Limiting reactant =reactant that runs out first and limits the product formation
●​ Percent yield: actual yield / theoretical yield * 100%.
●​ Beer’s Law: A=ϵcl; A = absorbance, c = concentration, l = path length (cuvette), extinction coefficient ϵ is
constant for a particular substance at a specific wavelength