PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS

A solid has three dimensions, viz. length,

breadth and thickness. To represent a solid
on a flat surface having only length and
breadth, at least two orthographic views
are necessary. Sometimes, additional
views projected on auxiliary planes
become necessary to make the description
of solid complete.
 TYPES OF SOLIDS
Solids may be divided into two main groups:
1. Polyhedra
2. Solids of revolution

1. Polyhedra: A polyhedron is defined as a solid

bounded by planes called faces.
When all the faces are equal and regular, the
polyhedron is said to be regular.
There are seven regular polyhedra as below:
a) Tetrahedron: It has four equal faces, each
an equilateral triangle.
b) Cube or hexahedron: It has six faces, all
equal squares.
c) Octahedron: It has eight equal equilateral
triangles as faces.
d) Dodecahedron: It has twelve equal and regular
pentagons as faces.
e) Icosahedron: It has twenty faces, all equal
equilateral triangles.
f) Prism: This is a polyhedron having two equal and
similar faces called its ends or bases, parallel to each
other and joined by other faces which are rectangles or
parallelograms.
The imaginary line joining the centers of bases is called
as the axis.
A right and regular prism has its axis perpendicular to
the bases. All its faces are equal rectangles.
g) Pyramid: This is a polyhedron having a plane figure
as a base and a number of triangular faces meeting at a
point called the vertex or apex.
The imaginary line joining the apex with the centre of the
base is its axis.
A right and regular pyramid has its axis perpendicular to
the base which is a regular plane figure. Its faces are all
equal isosceles triangles.
Oblique prisms and pyramids have their axes
inclined to their bases.
Prisms and pyramids are named according to the
shape of their bases, as triangular, square,
pentagonal, hexagonal etc.
2. SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
a) Cylinder: A right circular cylinder is a solid generated by
the revolution of a rectangle about one of its side which
remains fixed. It has two equal circular bases. The line
joining the centers of the bases is the axis. It is
perpendicular to the bases.
b) Cone: A right circular cone is a solid generated by the
revolution of a right – angled triangle about one of its
perpendicular sides which is fixed.
It has one circular base. Its axis joins the apex with the
centre of the base to which it is perpendicular. Straight
lines drawn from the apex to the circumference of the
base circle are all equal and are called generators of the
cone. The length of the generator is the slant height of
the cone.
c) Sphere: A sphere is a solid generated by the
revolution of a semicircle about its diameter as the axis.
The mid point of the diameter is the centre of the
sphere. All points on the surface of the sphere are
equidistant from its centre.

Oblique cylinders and cones have their axes

inclined to their bases.

d) Frustum: When a pyramid or cone is cut by a plane

parallel to its base, thus removing the top portion, the
remaining portion is called its frustum.

e) Truncated: When a solid is cut by a plane inclined to

the base it is said to be truncated.
 PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS
1. Projections of solids in simple positions.
a) Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
b) Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
c) Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
2. Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the
reference planes and parallel to the other.
a) Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the
H.P. and the V.P.
1. PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS IN SIMPLE POSITIONS:

➢ A solid in a simple position may have its axis

perpendicular to one reference plane or parallel to both.
➢ When the axis is perpendicular to one reference plane,
it is parallel to the other.
➢ Also, when the axis of the solid is perpendicular to a
plane, its base will be parallel to that plane.
➢ We have already seen that when a plane is parallel to a
reference plane, its projection on that plane shows its
true shape and size.
➢ Therefore, the projection of a solid on the plane to which
its axis is perpendicular, will show the true shape and
size of its base.
➢ Hence, when the axis is perpendicular to the ground,
i.e. to the H.P., the top view should be drawn first and
the front view should be projected from it.
➢ When the axis is perpendicular to the V.P., beginning
should be made with the front view. The top view
should be projected from it.
➢ When the axis is parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.,
neither the top view nor the front view will show the
actual shape of the base.
➢ In this case, the projection of the solid on an auxiliary
plane perpendicular to both the planes, viz. the side
view must be drawn first.
➢ The front view and the top view are then projected
from the side view. The projection in such cases may
also drawn in two stages.
 Problem 01:
Draw the projections of a triangular
prism, base 40 mm side and axis 50
mm long, resting on one of its bases
on the H.P. with a vertical face
perpendicular to the V.P.
 Problem 02:
Draw the projections of a pentagonal
pyramid, base 30 mm edge and axis
50 mm long, having its base on the
H.PP and an edge of the base parallel
to the V.P. Also draw its side view.
 Problem 03:
Draw the projections of (i) a cylinder,
base 40 mm diameter and axis 50
mm long, and (ii) a cone, base 40
mm diameter and axis 50 mm long,
resting on the H.P on their
respective bases.
 Problem 04:

A cube of 50 mm long edges is

resting on the H. P. with its vertical
faces equally inclined to the V.P.
Draw its projections.
 Problem 05:

Draw the projections of a hexagonal

pyramid, base 30 mm side and axis 60 mm
long, having its base on the H.PP and one of
the edges of the base inclined at 45° to the
VP.
 Problem 06:

A tetrahedron of 5 cm long edges is

resting on the H.P. on one of its faces,
with an edge of that face parallel to
the V.P. Draw its projections and
measure the distance of its apex from
the ground.
 Problem 07:
A hexagonal prism has one of its
rectangular faces parallel to the H. P.
Its axis is perpendicular to the V.P.
and 3.5 cm above the ground.
Draw its projections when the nearer
end is 2 cm in front of the V.P. Side of
base 2.5 cm long; axis 5 cm long.
 Problem 08:
A square pyramid, base 40 mrn side
and axis 65 mm long, has its base in
the V.P. One edge of the base is
inclined at 30° to the H.P. and a
corner contained by that edge is on
the H.P. Draw its projections.
 Problem 09:

A triangular prism, base 40 mm side

and height 65 mm is resting on the
H.P. on one of its rectangular faces
with the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw
its projections.
 Exercises XIII (i)
Draw the projections of the following solids, situated in their
respective positions, taking a side of the base 40 mm long
or the diameter of the base 50 mm long and the axis 65 mm
long.
1. A hexagonal pyramid, base on the H.P and a side of the
base parallel to and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
2. A square prism, base on the H.P., a side of the base inclined
at 30° to the V.P and the axis 50 mm in front of the V.P.
3. A triangular pyramid, base on the H.P and an edge of the
base inclined at 45° to the V.P.; the apex 40 mm in front of
the V.P.
4. A cylinder, axis perpendicular to the V.P and 40 mm above
the H.P., one end 20 mm in front of the V.P.
 Exercises XIII (i)

5. A pentagonal prism, a rectangular face parallel

to and 10 mm above the H.P., axis perpendicular
to the V.F and one base in the V.P.
6. A square pyramid, all edges of the base equally
inclined to the H.P and the axis parallel to and 50
mm away from both the H.P. and the V.P.
7. A cone, apex in the H.P axis vertical and 40 mm
in front of the V.P.
8. A pentagonal pyramid, base in the V.P and an
edge of the base in the H.P.
2. Projections of solids with axes inclined to
one of the reference planes and parallel to the
other:
When a solid has its axis inclined to one plane and
parallel to the other, its projections are drawn in two
stages.

(a) In the initial stage, the solid is assumed to be in

simple position, i.e. its axis perpendicular to one of the
planes.

If the axis is to be inclined to the ground, i.e. the H.P., it

is assumed to be perpendicular to the H.P in the initial
stage. Similarly, if the axis is to be inclined to the V.P., it
is kept perpendicular to the V.P in the initial stage.
Moreover

(i) if the solid has an edge of its base parallel to the

H.P or in the H.P or on the ground, that edge should
be kept perpendicular to the V.P; if the edge of the
base is parallel to the V.P or in the V.P., it should be
kept perpendicular to the H.P.

(ii) If the solid has a corner of its base in the H.P or on

the ground, the sides of the base containing that
corner should be kept equally inclined to the V.P; if
the corner is in the V.P., they should be kept equally
inclined to the H.P.
(b) Having drawn the projections of the solid in its simple
position, the final projections may be obtained by one
of the following two methods:

I. Alteration of position: The position of one of the

views is altered as required and the other view
projected from it.

II. Alteration of reference line or auxiliary plane: A

new reference line is drawn according to the required
conditions, to represent an auxiliary plane and the
final view projected on it.
➢ In the first method, the reproduction of a view
accurately in the altered position is likely to take
considerable time, specially, when the solid has
curved surfaces or too many edges and corners.

➢ In such cases, it is easier and more convenient

to adopt the second method.

➢ Sufficient care must however be taken in

transferring the distances of various points from
their respective reference lines.
 Problem 10:
Draw the projections of a
pentagonal prism, base 25 mm
side and axis 50 mm long, resting
on one of its rectangular faces on
the H.P., with the axis inclined at
45° to the V.P.
 Problem 11:

A hexagonal pyramid, base 25 mm

side and axis 50 rnm long, has an
edge of its base on the ground. Its
axis is inclined at 30° to the ground
and parallel to the V.P. Draw its
projections.
 Problem 12:

Draw the projections of a cone, base 75

mm diameter and axis 100 mm long,
lying on the H. P. on one of its generators
with the axis parallel to the V.P.
3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both
the H.P. and the VP.:

The projections of a solid with its axis inclined to both

the planes are drawn in three stages:

(i) Simple position

(ii) Axis inclined to one plane and parallel to the other
(iii) Final position.

The second and final positions may be obtained either

by the alteration of the positions of the solid, i.e. the
views, or by the alteration of reference lines.
 Problem 13:

A square prism, base 40 mm side

and height 65 mm, has its axis
inclined at 45° to the H.P. and has
an edge of its base, on the H.P
and inclined at 30o to the V.P.
Draw its projections.
 Problem 14:
Draw the projections of a cone, base
45 mm diameter and axis 50 mm long,
when it is resting on the ground on a
point on its base circle with (a) the axis
making an angle of 30° with the H.P.
and 45° with the VP; (b) the axis
making an angle of 30° with the H.P.
and its top view making 45° with the
V.P.
 Problem 14:

A pentagonal pyramid, base 25 mm

side and axis 50 mm long has one of
its triangular faces in the V.P. and the
edge of the base contained by that
face makes an angle of 30° with the
H.P. Draw its projections.
 Problem 15:

Draw the projections of a cube of

25 mm long edges resting on the
H.P on one of its corners with a
solid diagonal perpendicular to the
V.P.
 Problem 16:
A pentagonal prism is resting on one of the
corners of its base on the H.P. The longer
edge containing that corner is inclined at 45°
to the H.P. and the vertical plane containing
that edge and the axis are inclined at 30° to
the V.P. Draw the projections of the solid.
Also, draw the projections of the solid when
the plan of axis is inclined at 30° to xy. Take
the side of base 45 mm and height 70 mm
1. A rectangular block 75 mm x 50 mm x 25 mm thick
has a hole of 30 mm diameter drilled centrally
through its largest faces. Draw the projections when
the block has its 50 mm long edge parallel to the H.P
and perpendicular to the V.P. and has the axis of the
hole inclined at 60' to the H.P.
2. Draw the projections of a square pyramid having one
of its triangular faces in the V.P and the axis parallel
to and 40 mm above the H.P. Base 30 mm side; axis
75 mm long.
3. A cylindrical block, 75 mm diameter and 25 mm thick,
has a hexagonal hole of 25 mm side, cut centrally
through its flat faces. Draw three views of the block
when it has its flat faces vertical and inclined at 30°
to the V .P. and two faces of the hole parallel to the
H.P.
4. Draw three views of an earthen flower pot, 25 cm
diameter at the top,15 cm diameter at the bottom, 30 cm
high and 2.5 cm thick, when its axis makes an angle of 30°
with the vertical.

5. A tetrahedron of 75 mm long edges has one edge

parallel to the H.P. and inclined at 45° to the V.P while a
face containing that edge is vertical. Draw its projections.

6. A hexagonal prism, base 30 mm side and axis 75 mm

long, has an edge of the base parallel to the H.P and
inclined at 45° to the V.P. Its axis makes an angle of 60°
with the H.P. Draw its projections.
7. A pentagonal prism is resting on a corner of its base on
the ground with a longer edge containing that corner inclined
at 45° to the H.P and the vertical plane containing that edge
and the axis inclined at 30° to the V.P. Draw its projections.
Base 40 mm side; height 65 mm.y

8. Draw three views of a cone, base 50 mm diameter and

axis 75 mm long, having one of its generators in the V.P and
inclined at 30° to the H.P., the apex being in the H.P.

9. A square pyramid, base 40 mm side and axis 90 mm long,

has a triangular face on the ground and the vertical plane
containing the axis makes an angle of 45° with the V.P. Draw
its projections.
10. A frustum of a pentagonal pyramid, base 50 mm side, top
25 mm side and axis 75 mm long, is placed on its base on the
ground with an edge of the base perpendicular to the V.P.
Draw its projections. Project another top view on a reference
line parallel to the line which shows the true length of the slant
edge. From this top view, project a front view on an auxiliary
vertical plane inclined at 45° to the top view of the axis.

11. Draw the projections of a cone, base 50 mm diameter and

axis 75 mm long, lying on a generator on the ground with the
top view of the axis making an angle of 45° with the V.P.

12. The front view, incomplete top view and incomplete

auxiliary top view of a casting are given in fig. 13-47. Draw all
the three views completely in the third-angle projection.