BY

Dr. GAURAV DWIVEDI

 SOLAR ENERGY – Solar Photo-Voltaic

STORAGE BATTERY IN SPV SYSTEM

LECTURE NO. 2
Construction of Battery
Some important components of a battery construction are described as ;
Cell :
The cell is the basic Electro-chemical unit in a battery, consisting of a set of positive and negative
plates divided by separator, immersed in an electrolyte solution and enclosed in a case. In a typical
load Acid battery, each cell has a nominal voltage of about 2.1 volt, so there are 6 series cell in a
nominal 12 volt battery.
Active Material :
The active materials in a battery are the raw composition material that form the positive and
negative plates and are reactants in the Electro-chemical cell.
The amount of active material in a battery is import and to the capacity of the battery can deliver. In
lead Acid battery the active material are lead oxide (Pbor) in the positive plate and metallic storage
lead (Pb) in the negative plate which read with a sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution during battery
operation.
Electrolyte :
The electrolyte is a conducting medium which allow the flow of current through ionic transfer or the
transfer of the electrons between the plates in a battery. In a lead acid battery the electrolyte is a
diluted sulpuric acid solution.
Grid :
In a lead-acid battery, the grid is a typically a lead alloy frame work that supports the active
material on a battery plate and which also conducts currents. Antimony and calcium are often used
to strengthen the lead grids.
 Plate :
A plate is a basic battery components, consisting of a grid and active material some
time called an electrode. There are generally a number of positive and negative plate
in each battery cells, typically connected in parallel at a bus bar or in the-connector at
the top of the plate.
Separator :
A separator is a poroces, insulating divider between the positive and negative plates in
a battery, used to keep the plates from coming into electrical contact and short
circuiting and which also allows the flow of electrolyte and lons between the positive
and negative plates. Separator are made from micro porous rubber, plastic of glass-
wool mates.
Element :
An element is defined as a stack of positive and negative plate groups and separators,
assembled together with plates straps interconnecting the positive and negative plates.
Construction of Battery
Some important components of a battery construction are shown in
Fig.1 and described as below ;
Terminal Posts
Terminal posts are the external positive and negative electrical connections to a
battery. A battery is connected in a PV system and to electrical loads at the
terminal posts. In a lead-acid battery the posts are generally lead or a lead alloy,
or possibility stainless steel or copper-plated steel for greater corrosion
resistance. Battery terminals may require periodic cleaning, particularly for
flooded designs.
Cells Vents
During battery charging, gasses are produced within a battery that may be
vented to the atmosphere. In flooded designs, the loss of electrolyte through gas
escape from the cell vents it a normal occurrence, and requires the periodic
addition of water to maintain proper electrolyte levels. In sealed, or valve-
regulated batteries, the vents are designed with a pressure relief mechanism,
remaining closed under normal conditions, but opening during higher than
normal battery pressures, often the result of overcharging or high temperature
operation.
Case

Commonly made from a hard rubber or plastic, case contains the plates,
separators and electrolyte in a battery. The case is typically enclosed, with the
exception of inter-cell connectors which attach the plate assembly from one cell
to the next, terminal posts, and vents or caps which allow gassing products to
escape and permit water additions if required. Clear battery cases or containers
allow for easy monitoring of electrolyte levels and battery plate condition. For
very large or tall batteries, plastic cases are often supported with an external
metal or rigid plastic casing.
Battery Types and Classifications

Many types and classifications of batteries are manufactured today, each with
specific design and performance characteristics suited for particular applications.
Each battery type or design has its individual strengths and weakness. In PV
system, lead-acid batteries are most common due to their wide availability in
many sizes, low cost and well understood performance characteristics. In a few
critical, low temperature applications nickel-cadmium cells are used, but their
high initial cost limits their use in most PV systems. There is no “perfect battery”
and it is the task of the PV system designer to decide which battery type is most
appropriate for each application.

In general, electrical storage batteries can be divided into to major categories,

Primary and Secondary batteries.
Primary Batteries

Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but can not be
recharged. Typical carbon-zinc and lithium batteries commonly used in consumer
electronic devices are primary batteries. Primary batteries are not used in PV
systems because they can not be recharged.

Secondary Batteries

A secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and can also be
recharged by passing a current through it in an opposite direction to the
discharge current. Common lead-acid batteries used in automobiles and PV
systems are secondary battery.
Secondary Battery Types and Characteristics
Lead-Acid Battery Chemistry

Now that the basic components of a battery have been described, the overall
electrochemical operation of a battery can be discussed. Referring to Fig. , the
basic lead-acid battery cell consists of sets positive and negative plates, divided
by separators, and immersed in a case with an electrolyte solution. In a fully
charged lead-acid cell, the positive plates are lead dioxide (PbO2), the negative
plates are sponge lead (Pb), and the electrolyte is a diluted sulfuric acid solution.
When a battery is connected to an electrical load, current flows from the battery
as the active materials are converted to an electrical load, current flows from the
battery as the active materials are converted to lead sulfate (PbSO4).

Lead-Acid Cell Reaction

The following equations show the electrochemical reactions for the lead-acid cell.
During battery discharge, the directions of the reactions listed goes from left to
right. During battery charging, the direction of the reactions are reversed, and the
reactions go from right to left. Note that the elements as well as charge are
balanced on both sides of each equation.
At the negative plate or electrode :

Pb  Pb 2 + + 2e−

Pb2 + + SO24- +  PbSO4

Overall lead-acid cell reaction :
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4  2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Some consequences of these reactions are interesting and important. As
the battery is discharged, the active materials PbO2 and Pb in the
positive and negative plates, respectively, combine with the sulfuric acid
solution to form PbSO4 and water. Note that in a fully discharged battery
the active materials in both the positive and negative plates are
converted to PbSO4, while the sulfuric acid solution is converted to water
 Battery Discharging

When a battery discharged, the chemical reaction on

the plates proceeds inward, toward the grid. The
deeper the discharge, the deeper the chemical reaction
occurs. In lead-acid batteries, the lead-sulfate
molecules that are formed are larger than the lead or
lead-oxide molecules, and the bonding of the active
material to the plates is gradually weakened due to
grid growth.
 Active material
Discharge Process Grid coated onto grid

• Discharge reaction proceeds

inward toward grid.
• 100% discharge weakens
adhesion.
• Increased resistance produces
heat
• Degradation accelerates
Battery Selection Criteria
The selection of a battery for use in PV systems involves many
decisions and trade offs, and depends on many factors. While no
specific battery is apporpriate for all PV applications, common
sense and careful review of the battery literature with respect to the
particular application needs will help the designer narrow the
choice.
The list below summarizes some of the key consideration in battery selection.
➢ Nominal system voltage
➢ Charge regulation requirements
➢ Required capacity or autonomy
➢ Ampere-hour capacity at discharge rate
➢ Daily and maximum depth of discharge
➢ Self-discharge rate
➢ Gassing characteristics
➢ Efficiency
➢ Temperature effects
➢ Size, weight and structural needs
➢ Susceptibility to freezing
➢ Susceptibility to sulfation, stratification
➢ Electrolyte type, concentration
➢ Auxiliary equipment
➢ Maintenance requirements
➢ Terminal configurations
➢ Battery life (cycles/year)
➢ Availability and shipping requirements
➢ Cost and warranty
Formation

Forming is the process of initial battery charging during manufacture.

Formation of a lead-acid battery changes the lead oxide (PbO) on the
positive plate grids to lead dioxide (PbO2), and to metallic sponge lead
(Pb) on the negative plates. The extent to which a battery has been
formed during manufacture dictates the need for additional cycles in the
field to achieve rated capacity.

Stratification

Stratification is a condition that can occur in flooded lead-acid batteries in

which the concentration or specific gravity of the electrolyte increases
from the bottom to top of a cell. Stratification is generally the result of
undercharging, or not providing enough overcharge to gas and agitate the
electrolyte during finish charging. Prolonged stratification can result in the
bottom of the plates being consumed, while the upper portions remaining
in relatively good shape, reducing battery life and capacity. Tall stationary
cells, typically of large capacity, are particularly prone to stratification
when charged at low rates. Periodic equalization charges thoroughly mix
the electrolyte and can prevent stratification problems
Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a solution to the density
of water, typically measured with a hydrometer. By definition, water has a
specific gravity of one. In lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is a diluted solution of
sulfuric acid and water. In a fully charged battery, the electrolyte is
approximately 36% sulfuric acid by weight, or 25% by volume, with the
remainder water. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is related to the battery
state of charge, depending on the design electrolyte concentration and
temperature.

In a fully charged flooded lead-battery, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is

typically in the range or 1.250 to 1.280 at a temperature of 27oC, meaning that
the density of the electrolyte is between 1.25 and 1.28 times that of pure water.
Sulfation

Sulfation is a normal process that occur in lead-acid batteries resulting from

prolonged operation at partial states of change. Even batteries which are
frequently fully charged suffer from the effects of sulfation as the battery ages.
The sulfation process involves the growth of lead sulfate crystals on the positive
plate, decreasing the active area and capacity of the cell. During normal battery
discharge, the active materials of the plates are converted to leas sulfate. The
deeper the discharges, the greater the amount of active material that is converted
to leas sulfate. During recharge, the leas sulfate is converted back into lead
dioxide and sponge lead on the positive and negative plates, respectively. If the
battery is recharged soon after being discharged, the lead sulfate converts easily
back into the active materials.
Sulfation is a common problem experience with lead-acid batteries in many PV
applications. As the PV array is sized to meet the load under average conditions,
the battery must sometimes be used to supply reserve energy during periods of
excessive load usage of below average insolation. As a consequence, batteries in
most PV systems normally operate for some length of time over the course of a
year at partial states of charge, resulting in some degree of sulfation. The longer
the period and greater the depth of discharge, the greater the extent of sulfation.

To minimize sulfation of lead-acid batteries in photovoltaic systems, the PV

array is generally designed to recharge the battery on the average daily
conditions during the worst insloation month of the year. By sizing for the worst
month’s weather, the PV array has the best chance of minimizing the seasonal
battery depth of discharge. In hybrid systems using a backup source such as a
generator or wind turbine, the backup source can be effectively used to keep the
batteries fully charged even if the PV array can not. In general, proper battery
and array sizing, as well as periodic equalization charges can minimize the onset
of sulfation.