S3 chemistry notes 2025
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CARBON IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Carbon is an element in the periodic table with chemical symbol C, atomic number 6, and mass number 12.
It therefore belongs to group iv and period 2 in the periodic table.
Carbon occurs in the environment in different ways. These include; coal, mineral oils, carbonates, organic
matter and as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Carbon compounds are mostly used as fuels since when carbon burns it produces a lot of heat energy that
can be used in different ways. This is the reason why carbon-based fuels are widely used. Examples of
carbon-based fuels include; firewood, charcoal, paraffin etc.
HOW CARBON-BASED FUELS ARE USED:
1. Firewood: - Burned directly in fireplaces, stoves, or furnaces to produce heat for warmth, cooking, or
water heating. Combustion process:
Firewood + Oxygen → Heat + Carbon Dioxide + Water Vapor
2. Charcoal: - Burned in stoves, grills, or furnaces to produce heat for cooking, warmth, or industrial
processes. Combustion process:
Charcoal + Oxygen → Heat + Carbon Dioxide
3. Paraffin (Kerosene): - Burned in lamps, heaters, or stoves to produce light and heat. Combustion process:
Paraffin + Oxygen → Heat + Light + Carbon Dioxide + Water Vapor - Also used as a fuel for jet engines
and rockets.
4. Petrol (Gasoline): - Burned in internal combustion engines to power vehicles, generators, and machinery.
Combustion process:
Petrol + Oxygen → Energy (mechanical or electrical) + Carbon Dioxide + Water Vapor
5. Diesel: - Burned in internal combustion engines to power vehicles, generators, and machinery.
Combustion process:
Diesel + Oxygen → Energy (mechanical or electrical) + Carbon Dioxide + Water Vapor
Diesel engines operate at higher compression ratios than petrol engines, making them more efficient for
heavy-duty applications. In each case, the fuel is combined with oxygen and ignited, releasing energy in
the form of heat, light, or mechanical work, and producing carbon dioxide and water vapor as byproducts.
REASONS WHY CARBON-BASED FUELS ARE USED:
1. Firewood:
- Availability and accessibility
- Low cost
- Renewable resource (if sustainably harvested)
- Can be used for cooking, heating, and power generation
- Does not require complex processing or refining
- Can be used in traditional and rural settings
2. Charcoal:
- High energy density
- Portable and easy to store
- Can be used for cooking, heating, and industrial processes
- Does not produce smoke or toxic fumes when burned
- Can be made from waste wood or biomass - Has a long shelf life
3. Paraffin (Kerosene):
- High energy density
- Clean-burning and smokeless
- Can be used for lighting, cooking, and heating
- Has a long shelf life
- Does not require complex infrastructure for transportation and storage
- Can be used in aviation and rocket fuel
4. Petrol (Gasoline):
- Has high energy density
- Easy to refine and process
- Can be used in internal combustion engines for transportation and power generation
- Has a high octane rating, making it suitable for high-compression engines
- Can be blended with other fuels to improve performance
- Has a wide range of applications, from small engines to industrial power generation
5. Diesel:
- High energy density
- High compression ratio, making it efficient for heavy-duty applications
- Can be used in internal combustion engines for transportation, power generation, and industrial processes
- Has a high cetane rating, making it suitable for compression ignition engines
- Can be used in marine and aviation applications
- Has a wide range of applications, from small generators to large industrial equipment.
These reasons highlight the advantages and benefits of each fuel, making them suitable for various
applications and uses.
RENEWABLE FUEL
A renewable fuel is a fuel that can be replenished naturally over time, typically from natural resources like
plants, trees, or waste materials.
Illustration: A tree farm where trees are harvested for firewood or wood pellets. As the trees are harvested,
new trees are planted to replace them, making the fuel source renewable.
Example: Biomass fuels like firewood, charcoal (made from sustainable wood sources), biofuels, and
biogas.
NON-RENEWABLE FUEL
A non-renewable fuel is a fuel that cannot be replenished naturally over time, typically from finite resources
like fossil fuels.
Illustration: An oil well extracting crude oil from the ground. Once the oil is extracted, it cannot be replaced
or replenished.
Example: Fossil fuels like petrol, diesel, paraffin, and coal.
FUEL SUSTAINABILITY
Fuel sustainability refers to the ability of a fuel source to meet the energy demands of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own energy demands.
Illustration: A sustainable fuel cycle where fuel is produced, used, and then replaced or replenished,
ensuring a continuous and sustainable supply.
Example: A forest where trees are harvested for firewood, and new trees are planted to replace them,
ensuring a sustainable supply of fuel.
In summary, renewable fuels are sustainable and can be replenished naturally, while non-renewable fuels
are finite and cannot be replaced once depleted. Fuel sustainability ensures that fuel sources meet present
demands without compromising future energy needs.
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE CARBON-BASED FUELS
1. Firewood: Renewable fuel - Reason: Firewood is a biomass fuel that can be sustainably harvested from
forests or plantations, and it can be replenished naturally.
2. Charcoal: Renewable fuel - Reason: Charcoal is made from wood, and if the wood is sourced sustainably,
charcoal can be considered a renewable fuel.
3. Petrol: Non-renewable fuel - Reason: Petrol is a fossil fuel derived from crude oil, which takes millions
of years to form and is finite.
4. Diesel: Non-renewable fuel - Reason: Diesel is also a fossil fuel derived from crude oil, making it finite
and non-renewable.
5. Paraffin: Non-renewable fuel - Reason: Paraffin, also known as kerosene, is a refined product derived
from crude oil, making it a non-renewable fuel source.
WAYS TO MAKE FUEL USE MORE SUSTAINABLE
Major ways can significantly contribute to more sustainable fuel use, reducing environmental impacts and
promoting a cleaner energy future as explained below;
Fuel Efficiency and Conservation: Improve vehicle fuel efficiency, use fuel efficient technologies, and
implement fuel saving measures like turning off engines, using public transport, or carpooling.
Fuel Switching and Blending: Switch from fossil fuels to renewable fuels like biofuels, biogas, or
electricity, and blend fossil fuels with renewable fuels to reduce emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.
Sustainable Production and Land Use: Ensure sustainable production and harvesting practices for
renewable fuel sources like biomass or biofuels, and promote sustainable land use practices for biofuel
crops or biomass production.
Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies: Promote alternative energy sources like solar, wind, or
hydro power to reduce dependence on fuels, and continuously research and develop new sustainable fuel
technologies and alternatives.
Carbon Capture and Storage: Capture and store carbon emissions from fuel use to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, and utilize waste materials as fuel sources through waste-to-energy technologies.
HOW THE BURNING OF CARBON-BASED FUELS IMPACT THE ENVIRONMENT
Air Pollution: Burning carbon-based fuels releases harmful pollutants like particulate matter, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds, contributing to poor air quality and negative health
effects.
Mitigation: Implement emission controls like scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters;
promote cleaner fuels like natural gas or renewable energy.
Climate Change: Burning carbon-based fuels releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes
to global warming and climate change.
Mitigation: Transition to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, or hydro power; implement carbon
capture and storage technologies; increase energy efficiency.
Acid Rain: Burning carbon-based fuels releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which combine with
water and oxygen to form acid rain, damaging ecosystems and infrastructure.
Mitigation: Implement emission controls like scrubbers; switch to cleaner fuels like natural gas or
renewable energy; add alkaline substances to neutralize acidity.
Water Pollution: Burning carbon-based fuels can contaminate water sources through wastewater disposal
or cooling system discharges.
Mitigation: Implement proper wastewater treatment and disposal; use dry cooling systems or hybrid
cooling towers; promote water conservation.
Land Degradation: Extracting, processing, and transporting carbon-based fuels can lead to habitat
destruction, soil erosion, and land subsidence.
Mitigation: Implement sustainable extraction practices; restore degraded lands through reclamation and
reforestation; promote renewable energy sources
Health Impacts: Burning carbon-based fuels can cause respiratory problems, cardiovascular disease, and
other health issues due to air pollution.
Mitigation: Promote cleaner fuels and energy sources; implement emission controls; increase public
awareness and education on air quality and health impacts.
MAKING CHARCOAL BRIQUETTES FROM WASTE ORGANIC MATERIALS:
Materials Needed: - Waste organic materials (e.g., sawdust, rice husks, coconut shells)
- Charcoal dust or powder
- A binding agent (e.g., starch, clay)
- Water - A mixing device (e.g., hammer mill, blender)
- A briquette machine or press
- A drying rack or oven
Procedure:
1. Charcoal Production: Produce charcoal from wood through carbonization.
2. Crushing and Milling: Crush and mill the charcoal into a fine powder.
3. Mixing: Mix the charcoal powder with a binding agent and water to create a uniform blend.
4. Briquetting: Use a briquette machine or press to shape the blend into briquettes.
5. Drying: Dry the briquettes to remove excess moisture.
6. Curing: Allow the briquettes to cure for several hours or days to harden.
Applications:
- Fuel: Use the charcoal briquettes as a fuel for cooking, heating, or industrial processes.
Note: The specific steps may vary depending on the desired charcoal briquette quality and application.
Additionally, proper safety measures should be taken during the process to avoid accidents and ensure a
safe working environment.
MAKING CHARCOAL FROM WOOD:
Materials Needed:
- Trees (preferably hardwoods like oak, maple, or beech)
- Axe or chainsaw for felling and cutting
- Kiln or pit for carbonization
- Heat source (e.g., firewood, diesel)
- Water for cooling - Sieves or screens for purification
Procedure:
1. Harvesting: Select and fell trees, then cut them into manageable logs
. 2. Splitting: Split logs into smaller pieces to increase surface area.
3. Drying: Dry wood pieces to reduce moisture content.
4. Loading: Load wood pieces into kiln or pit.
5. Carbonization: Heat wood in kiln or pit to high temperatures (200-300°C) in absence of oxygen
6. Cooling: Allow charcoal to cool before removing from kiln or pit
Applications:
- Fuel: Use charcoal as fuel for cooking, heating, or industrial processes.
- Water Filtration: Use charcoal as filter medium to remove impurities from water.
- Agriculture: Use charcoal as soil amendment to improve soil fertility and structure.
Note: The specific steps and purification processes may vary depending on desired charcoal quality
and application. Additionally, proper safety measures should be taken during the process to avoid
accidents.
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS
Molecular Formula: CO2
Elemental Composition: Carbon & Oxygen Chemical Structure: O=C=O Molecular Weight: 44.01
g/mol
Category: Covalent compound (Formed by sharing of electrons)
Properties:
➢ It is a colorless gas
➢ It is odorless
➢ It is slightly acidic
➢ It is a gas at room temperature and pressure
➢ Test with a lit splint: Extinguishes a lit splint indicating the presence of CO2.
Occurrence: -it is found in Earth’s atmosphere (0.03%)
- Released through human activities (fossil fuel combustion, deforestation)
Laboratory preparation of dry sample of carbon dioxide gas
setup
Word Equation of Carbon Dioxide Production:
Limestone (Calcium Carbonate) + Dilute Hydrochloric Acid → Calcium Chloride + Water + Carbon
Dioxide
In chemical symbols:
CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Procedure
Calcium carbonate is put in a flat-bottomed flask because it is a solid
The flask is fitted with a cork, delivery tube and a dropping funnel.
Dilute hydrochloric acid is put in a funnel because it is a liquid.
The acid is allowed to mix with the calcium carbonate in the flask
Bubbles of a colorless gas is produced
The gas is then passed through a wash bottle contain water or potassium hydrogen carbonate to remove
traces of the acid
The gas is passed through a wash bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid to dry the gas
The gas is then collected by downward delivery because it is denser than air.
USES OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Food and Beverages: CO2 is used to create the fizz in soft drinks, beer, and sparkling water, making
them refreshing and carbonated.
Industrial Applications: CO2 is used in oil recovery, chemical synthesis, and power generation, helping
to extract resources and produce energy.
Cooling and Agriculture: CO2 is used as a refrigerant in commercial and industrial cooling systems,
and in greenhouses to enhance plant growth and photosynthesis.
Safety and Cleaning: CO2 is used in fire extinguishers to put out electrical fires, and as a solvent for
cleaning surfaces and equipment.
ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEAN WARMING
The increase in carbon dioxide in the air leads to atmospheric and oceanic warming through several
mechanisms:
Trapping heat: CO2 absorbs infrared radiation, trapping heat in the atmosphere and preventing it from
being released into space.
Greenhouse effect: CO2 is a greenhouse gas, enhancing the natural greenhouse effect and leading to
an increase in global temperatures.
Ocean absorption: The oceans absorb some of the excess CO2, which increases their acidity and
temperature.
Therefore, this tells us that the nature of carbon dioxide is that of a potent greenhouse gas, capable of
altering the Earth’s energy balance and leading to significant climate change hence the term global
warming.
IMPACTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE ON CLIMATE
Global Warming: carbon dioxide traps heat, increasing global temperatures and altering climate
patterns. (Example: 2020 was the hottest year on record, with temperatures 1.2°C above pre-industrial
levels.)
Extreme Weather Events: carbon dioxide influenced climate change leads to more frequent and
intense heatwaves, droughts, and storms.
These impacts demonstrate the significant effects of carbon dioxide on the Earth’s climate, leading to
rising temperatures and extreme weather events.
GREENHOUSE GASES
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are gases that trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to global
warming.
Examples: - Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3), Fluorinated
gases (F-gases) e.g. CFCs
SOURCES OF GREENHOUSE GASES
- Human activities: burning fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture, industrial processes
- Natural sources: volcanic eruptions, wildfires, ocean releases
WAYS GREENHOUSE GASES ARE AFFECTING THE CLIMATE
Major ways Greenhouse Gases are affecting the climate include;
Rising Global Temperatures: The average global temperature has risen by about 1°C since the late
1800s, leading to:
o Increased heatwaves, droughts, and water scarcity
o Melting of polar ice caps, glaciers, and sea-level rise
o Changes in seasonal patterns and weather extremes.
Extreme Weather Events: Greenhouse gases intensify weather events, leading to:
- More frequent and intense storms, hurricanes, and typhoons
- Severe droughts, wildfires, and heatwaves
- Unpredictable and dangerous weather patterns
Sea-Level Rise: Melting ice caps and glaciers cause sea levels to rise, resulting in:
- Coastal erosion, flooding, and saltwater intrusion
- Loss of coastal ecosystems, habitats, and biodiversity
- Displacement of coastal communities and cities.
Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Greenhouse gases alter global precipitation patterns, leading to:
- Droughts, water scarcity, and impacts on agriculture
- Floods, landslides, and infrastructure damage
- Changes in ecosystems, biodiversity, and food chains.
Loss of Biodiversity: Climate change affects ecosystems, leading to:
- Extinctions, habitat loss, and species migrations
- Disruptions to food chains, fisheries, and agriculture
- Decreased ecosystem resilience and adaptability
CONTROLLING THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF GREENHOUSE GASES
- Transition to renewable energy sources
- Increase energy efficiency and conservation
- planting more trees
- International cooperation and climate policies
- Implementing policies and regulations
- Investing in clean energy and technology
- Promoting sustainable land use and forestry practices
- Encouraging individual actions and behavior change.
(research on causes, effects and solutions to global warming)
WATER HARDNESS
Hard water is water that contains high levels of dissolved minerals, specifically calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg) ions. These minerals make water “hard” because they react with soap and other
cleaning agents, making it difficult to lather or foam.
Soft water is the water that does not contain dissolved minerals and therefore it forms lather easily
with soap. Examples of soft water; rain water, distilled water etc.
Hard water can also lead to scaling, which is the deposition of mineral deposits in pipes and appliances.
HOW RAINWATER BECOMES ‘HARD’
In limestone areas, hard water originates from the dissolution of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and
magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) from limestone rocks in the ways below;
1.Limestone formation: Limestone is formed from the accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
from ancient marine organisms, such as coral, shells, and skeletons.
2.Rainwater absorption: Rainwater absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere, forming a weak carbonic acid
(H2CO3).
3.Reaction with limestone: The acidic rainwater reacts with limestone, dissolving the calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and releasing calcium (Ca) and bicarbonate (HCO3 - ) ions.
4.Groundwater flow: The water, now rich in calcium and bicarbonate ions, flows through the ground
and into aquifers.
5.Magnesium contribution: Magnesium, present in smaller amounts in limestone, also dissolves and
contributes to the hardness of the water.
6.Hard water emergence: The water, now containing high levels of calcium and magnesium ions,
emerges as hard water in wells, springs, or surface water sources.
TYPES OF HARDWATER
there are two types i.e.:
1. Temporary Hardness. This is a type of hardness that can be removed by boiling.
- Caused by calcium hydrogen carbonate (Ca(HCO3)2) and magnesium hydrogen carbonate(Mg
(HCO3)2)
- Sources: - Surface water (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) - Groundwater (wells, springs) in limestone or
dolomite aquifers - Municipal water supplies that use surface or groundwater sources - Rainwater that
has passed through carbonate-rich soils or rocks
2. Permanent Hardness. This is a type of hardness that can not be removed by boiling.
- Caused by calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) sulphates and chlorides Sources: - Groundwater (wells,
springs) in aquifers with high sulfate or chloride concentrations - Seawater or brackish water -
Municipal water supplies that use desalination or wastewater treatment
- Industrial processes that use water with high levels of dissolved minerals.
Note that some water sources may exhibit both temporary and permanent hardness, depending on the
specific geology and water chemistry.
SOFTENING WATER HARDNESS
Temporary Hardness:
Boiling: - Simply boil the water to precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) out of solution. - Effective
for small quantities of water.
Addition of Limewater: - Add limewater (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) to the water to remove
calcium ions. - Forms calcium carbonate precipitate, which can be removed.
Precipitation with Washing Soda: - Add washing soda (sodium carbonate, Na2CO3) to the water to
precipitate calcium carbonate
Permanent Hardness
Distillation: - Vaporize the water and then condense it, leaving minerals behind. Effective, but energy-
intensive.
Addition of washing soda : - Add chemicals like sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) to remove calcium and
magnesium ions. Forms precipitates or complexes with the minerals, making the water softer.
Ion Exchange: - Use a resin to exchange calcium and magnesium ions for sodium or potassium ions.
Regenerate the resin with salt (sodium chloride) periodically.
HOW WATER HARDNESS AFFECTS SOAP
Soap contains soluble salts of sodium or potassium stearates. When soap is added to hard water
containing calcium or magnesium salts, it first precipitates calcium stearate or magnesium stearate as
scum and no lather is formed until the calcium ions and magnesium ions are removed.
Advantages of hard water
• hard water contains calcium that helps in formation of animal shells, bones and teeth.
• It can be conveyed in lead pipes because it does not dissolve lead
• It is used in manufacturing industries e.g. brewing because it is sweet.
Disadvantages of hard water
➢ It requires much soap to form lather hence wastes soap
➢ It forms scum which leaves dirty marks in clothes
➢ It forms fur in kettles in which it is boiled. Fur is a bad conductor of heat therefore wastes fuel
ALLOTROPY
Allotropy refers to the existence of two or more different physical forms of the same element with the
same atomic number but differ in their atomic arrangement, crystal structure, or molecular
configuration.
These different forms are called allotropes.
Allotropes are different physical forms of the same element, which can exhibit varying physical and
chemical properties.
Examples,
Carbon allotropes includes;
- Diamonds
- Graphite (used in pencils)
- amorphous carbon
Sulphur allotropes include;
Monoclinic Sulphur
Rhombic Sulphur
Phosphorus allotropes include;
- White phosphorus
- Red phosphorus
- Black phosphorus
THE STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE AS ALLOTROPES OF CARBON:
Diamond:
- Crystal structure:
- Each carbon atom is bonded to four neighboring atoms using covalent bonds in a strong, three-
dimensional structure. In diamond the carbon atom uses all the four valence electrons. Hence a bad
conductor of electricity.
- it is Extremely hard and rigid.
Graphite:
- Crystal structure:
Hexagonal or layer lattice - Each carbon atom is bonded to three neighboring atoms using covalent
bonds in hexagonal arrangement. Weak van der Waals forces hold layers together, making graphite soft
and slippery. In graphite the carbon atom uses three electrons of the 4 valence electrons leaving one
electron free and mobile throughout the whole layer. This makes graphite a good conductor of
electricity.
These different structures result in distinct properties, making diamonds ideal for industrial cutting
tools and graphite perfect for pencil lead and lubricants.
THE PROPERTIES OF DIAMONDS AND GRAPHITE THAT DETERMINE THEIR USES:
The following properties make diamonds and graphite versatile materials with various industrial,
technological, and artistic applications.
Diamond:
Hardness: Diamond is the hardest substance known, making it ideal for,
- Cutting and drilling tools (e.g., diamond tipped saw blades)
Transparency: Diamond is highly transparent, making it perfect for,
- High-pressure windows and optical components
Chemical Inertness: Diamond is resistant to chemicals, making it ideal for
- Chemical reaction vessels and containers.
High Dispersion: Diamond has a high dispersion coefficient, making it suitable for brilliant gemstones
and jewelry
Graphite:
Softness: Graphite is soft and slippery, making it perfect for,
- Pencil lead and lubricants
Conductivity: Graphite is a good electrical conductor, making it suitable for,
- Electrodes in batteries and electrolysis
Lubricity: Graphite is highly lubricating, making it perfect for,
- Bearings and gears in machinery
THANK YOU FOR COMPLETING THE WORK
MERRY CHRISTMAS AND HAPPY NEW YEAR 2025
SEE YOU IN 2025
‘’do your best to achieve your dreams’’
