<Nel-ONBio11U-U01-C03-L09>

SECTION <H1> The Animal Kingdom

3.4
At mention of the word animal, many people think of furry mammals, while others Key Terms
may think of reptiles, birds, or fish. But these familiar animals only represent a single
invertebrate
phylum of the 35 phyla that make up the animal kingdom. Animals in the remaining
vertebrate
34 phyla, such as sponges, sea cucumbers, and the sea anemone shown in Figure 3.23,
make up 95 percent of the animal kingdom. This section explores only a selection of radial symmetry
these phyla. Over half of animal phyla consist of worms that are generally unknown to bilateral symmetry
non-scientists. The largest number of animal species that have been identified, about coelom
800 000, are in Phylum Arthropoda, which includes insects, spiders, lobsters, and crabs. segmentation
polyp
<H2> What Is an Animal? medusa

Animals have several characteristics that make them different from organisms in mantle
the other kingdoms you have read about. In general, all animals share the following exoskeleton
characteristics: notochord
cartilage
• They are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms. Their cells do not have cell walls.
tetrapod
• They are heterotrophs that usually ingest (take in) and then digest their food.
ectothermy
• They are usually mobile, or have the ability to move, in at least one stage of their lives. endothermy
• They reproduce sexually and produce an embryo that undergoes stages of development. mammary gland
placenta
<H2> Characteristics Used to Classify Animals
One of the main characteristics used to classify animals is whether the organism has a
invertebrate an animal
<inline term with
backbone. Animals without backbones are referred to as invertebrates. Animals that that does not have a reveal>
definition
have an internal skeleton and a backbone are called vertebrates. About 95 percent of backbone
animals are invertebrates. Other characteristics used to help classify animals include vertebrate an animal
• levels of organization with an internal
<inline term skeleton
with
and a backbone
definition reveal>
• number of body layers
• symmetry and body plans
• body cavity
• segmentation
• movement
• reproduction
With well over a million identified species of animals, there exists great diversity among
these characteristics.
Figure 3.23 About
A B C 95 percent of animals
are invertebrates.
(A) Sponges live in aquatic
environments, attached to
solid surfaces such as rocks,
coral, or the shell of another
animal. (B) Sea anemones
use their stinging tentacles
to catch food. (C) Sea
cucumbers feed on dead
and decaying matter.

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 111

 <H3> Levels of Organization
endoderm mesoderm Animals are classified on the basis of differences in their structure, tissues, and organ
systems. All animals have cells and, with the exception of sponges, the cells of animals
are organized into tissues. A tissue is a group of similar cells that is specialized to
perform specific tasks. For example, in the human body, muscle tissue generates the
force needed to move the body. Tissues, in turn, are organized into organs and organ
systems, each with particular functions. As you will read, animals have varying levels
of structure and complexity in organ systems such as the digestive system, the nervous
ectoderm
system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system.

Figure 3.24 Most animals <H3> of Body Layers

Number
develop three layers of
cells at an early stage in the All animals except sponges and animals in Phylum Cnidaria (corals, hydras, jellyfish,
growth of the embryo. and sea anemones) have three layers of cells. These layers, shown in Figure 3.24, are
the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. The ectoderm is the outer layer, the
mesoderm is the middle layer, and the endoderm is the inner layer. The layers develop
during the early stages of growth in an embryo. The development of these three layers
helps sort cells into an arrangement that produces specialized tissues and organs in the
adult animals. In humans, for example, the ectoderm produces the skin, nerve tissue,
and some sense organs. The mesoderm produces the muscles, blood, kidneys, and
reproductive organs. The endoderm produces the lungs, liver, pancreas, bladder, and
stomach lining.

<H3> Symmetry and Body Plans

radial symmetry
Different groups of animals have different arrangements of cells, tissues, and organs.
a body plan that can The different arrangements lead to different body plans, as shown in Figure 3.25. Some
<inline term with
be divided along any animals have an asymmetrical body plan, which means their body shape is irregular.
definition reveal>
plane, through a central Sponges are examples of animals with an asymmetrical body plan. Some animals
axis, into roughly equal
have radial symmetry, which means they can be divided along any plane parallel
halves
with the body axis. Animals with radial symmetry include corals and jellyfish. Other
bilateral symmetry
a body plan that can be animals, such as worms, insects, and vertebrates, have bilateral symmetry. Animals
divided along one plane, with bilateral symmetry can be divided into two mirror halves only along one plane
<inline term
through with axis,
the central through the central axis.
definition
into reveal>
equal halves
Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry
A B

dorsal
posterior

anterior

Figure 3.25 (A) The cnidarian that is known as a hydra shows radial symmetry. (B) The turtle
shows bilateral symmetry.

112 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

<H3> Body Cavities
Some animals have their digestive tract and other organs suspended in a fluid-filled
coelom a fluid-filled
body cavity called the coelom, which is shown in Figure 3.26. Animals with a coelom, body cavity that
<inline term with
including some worms, molluscs, insects, and vertebrates, are called coelomates. Animals provides space for
definition reveal>
without a coelom, such as corals, jellyfish, and flatworms, are called acoelomates. the development and
Why is a coelom important? Imagine a length of thin rubber tubing. Now imagine suspension of organs
and organ systems
the same tubing closed at both ends and filled with water. The empty tube is like a
segmentation the
flatworm, which has a flat body. The water-filled tube is like an earthworm, which has division
<inline of multicellular
term with
a round body. With fluid inside it, the tube is more solid and rigid. For animals, this bodies into a series of
definition reveal>
gives their muscles a structure to brace against, allowing them to move and respond repetitive parts
more quickly. In addition, a fluid-filled body cavity allows for the development of more
complex organ systems. For example, the digestive tract can grow longer than the
body, because it can bend and fold back on itself within the coelom. In more complex
animals, such as vertebrates, the coelom is subdivided into separate cavities around the
heart and lungs, as well as around the digestive tract.

Acoelomate body plan Coelomate body plan

A B

Ectoderm fluid-filled cavity

Mesoderm
Endoderm

Figure 3.26 (A) Acoelomate animals have flattened bodies. (B) Coelomate animals have a body
cavity in which complex internal organs can develop.

<H3> Segmentation
Some animals, such as worms and the scorpion shown in Figure 3.27, are segmented.
Segmentation is the division of the body into repetitive sections, or segments. One
advantage of segmentation is that a single segment can be damaged, but the other
segments can continue to function properly. Second, mobility is more effective
because segments move independently, allowing for complex patterns of movement.

<H3> Movement
The evolution of nerve and muscle tissue in animals allowed the development of
Figure 3.27 The body of a
both complex and fast movement. However, some animals, such as sponges and sea scorpion is segmented.
anemones, are sessile, or stationary, as adults. They live attached to one place, such as the
bottom of the ocean, a rock, or even the shell of another animal. Like most animals,
sessile animals have a body form that can move during juvenile stages of development.

<H3> <Reflecting
Learning Check subsection>
25. List the five characteristics that all animals share. 28. Identify the three layers of cells found in most
26. Distinguish between tissues and organs. animals, and describe the importance of these layers.
27. Distinguish among asymmetrical, bilaterally 29. Compare and contrast an acoelomate body plan
symmetrical, and radially symmetrical body and a coelomate body plan. Which type of plan do
plans. Give an example of an organism that humans have? Explain your answer.
exhibits each type. 30. Make a graphic organizer that shows the advantages
of segmentation.

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 113

 <H3> Reproduction
Most animals reproduce sexually using gametic reproduction. Recall from Chapter 2
that in gametic reproduction a zygote develops into a diploid organism, and the only
haploid cells are eggs and sperm. Zygotes are produced by either external or internal
fertilization. External fertilization occurs when gametes combine outside the body.
External fertilization is common among animals that live in aquatic environments,
such as fish and amphibians. Internal fertilization occurs when the egg and sperm
combine inside the female body.
Some animals can reproduce asexually. For example, some species, such as aphids,
alternate between sexual and asexual modes, reserving sexual reproduction for when
environmental conditions deteriorate and tough conditions are likely to follow.

<H2>
Invertebrate Animals
Invertebrates occupy almost all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems on Earth. They have
existed for hundreds of millions of years, and those with hard parts form substantial
parts of the fossil record. Invertebrates are divided into 34 different phyla.

<H3> Sponges and Cnidarians

Sponges (Phylum Porifera), shown in Figure 3.28 (A), are found in both marine and
freshwater environments. Unlike all other animals, they have an asymmetrical body
plan and they have no tissues. The body of a sponge consists of only two layers of
cells. The individual cells that make up a sponge are so independent that if you were
to squeeze a living sponge through a filter to separate it into clumps of cells, the cells
would be able to reassemble themselves into a whole sponge. Sponges are sessile as
adults. They feed by trapping food particles in water as the water passes through the
internal channels of their bodies.
The cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria) are one of the oldest animal groups.
Cnidarians include a variety of classes, including freshwater hydras (Class Hydrozoa),
marine jellyfish (Class Scyphozoa), and sea anemones and corals (Class Anthozoa),
shown in Figure 3.28 (B). Like sponges, they only have two layers of cells. However,
cnidarians do have tissues, including muscle tissue, as well as a simple nervous
system. This allows them to swim and capture prey, which they do by using stinging
tentacles around their mouth opening. Food is then digested in the body cavity,
referred to as a gastrovascular cavity. Cnidarians have radial body symmetry and
two basic body forms.

A B

Figure 3.28 (A) Sponges are animals that have no tissues, no organs, and an asymmetrical body
plan. (B) Corals are cnidarians that can form reef environments.

114 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

 <H4> Two Body Forms
The two basic body forms of cnidarians are shown in Figure 3.29. A polyp is a
polyp <inline
the tube-shaped
term with
cylindrical form that attaches to a surface, extending tentacles upward and outward, sessile body form of
definition reveal>
waiting for prey. Adult sea anemones, corals, and hydras exist in polyp form. A medusa cnidarians
(plural medusae) is a more flattened, mouth-down form that is not attached. A medusa medusa the umbrella-
moves passively with currents or actively by body contractions, such as the jellyfish shaped, free-swimming
<inline
body form term with
of cnidarians
in Figure 3.29 (B). Some cnidarians occur only as polyps and some only as medusae.
definition reveal>
Others alternate between these two forms during their life cycle. For example, the
larval stage of a coral is a medusa, while the adult organism is a polyp.

tentacle gastrovascular cavity

A mouth B

mouth tentacle

polyp medusa

Figure 3.29 There are two basic forms of cnidarians: polyps and medusae. (A) Polyps, such as eyespots
adult sea anemones, are sessile. (B) Medusae, like the jellyfish shown in the photo, are mobile.
<supporting question>
Describe the difference in orientation of polyps and medusae.

<H3> Worms
Although you might describe a worm as just a long, wiggly invertebrate animal, worms
have several characteristics that are not seen in simpler animals. Flatworms (Phylum
Platyhelminthes) are the least complex worms. They are acoelomates with three layers
of cells. This group includes parasitic tapeworms, flukes, and the free-living planarians
shown in Figure 3.30. They have a simple nervous system with a brain-like concentration
of cells, including an eyespot, at the head end. The characteristic of a body with a
distinct head end is a different body plan than the animals you have read about so far.
Another characteristic found in some worms that does not exist in simpler animals Figure 3.30 Planarians
is a segmented body. Segmented worms (Phylum Annelida) have long tube-like bodies have a distinct head end,
that are divided into a series of ringed segments. As shown in Figure 3.31, segmented which includes eye spots.
worms have a distinct head end and several organ systems.

brain Digestive system

mouth A fairly simple tube runs from
mouth to anus.

Circulatory system
Blood vessels supply each segment,
while five pairs of enlarged vessels
Figure 3.31 Segmented
function as hearts. worms, like this earthworm,
are coelomates that are
segmented on the inside
as well as on the outside.

Excretory system
Nephridia are excretory structures
anus that eliminate metabolic wastes.

Nervous system
A central nerve cord runs the
length of the body, with branches
in each segment. A simple brain
co-ordinates the system.

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 115

 <H3> Molluscs
The molluscs (Phylum Mollusca) are the second-most diverse animal phylum, with
about 100 000 species. All molluscs have bilateral symmetry, three layers of cells, a
coelom, and two body openings. Molluscs have a soft body that is protected in many
species by a hard shell. Three of the main classes of molluscs are shown in Figure 3.32.

A B C

Figure 3.32 Three of the major classes of molluscs are (A) the bivalves, represented here by a
file clam; (B) the gastropods, represented by a land snail; and (C) the cephalopods, represented
by an octopus.

The clams, mussels, oysters, and scallops (Class Bivalvia) are marine and freshwater
species that are protected by a hinged shell. The shelled snails and non-shelled slugs
(Class Gastropoda) are found in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. The
shell, when present, is usually coiled. The octopuses and squids (Class Cephalopoda)
are marine organisms with grasping tentacles. They can propel themselves with great
bursts of speed by drawing in water and then forcefully releasing it.
Despite the diversity in form, habitat, and behaviours, all molluscs have a similar
mantle a membrane
<inline
that term with
surrounds a body plan, as shown in Figure 3.33. A mantle surrounds the internal organs and
definitioninternal
mollusc’s reveal>organs secretes calcium carbonate for the shell. A mollusc’s body contains organ systems,
including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, reproductive, and nervous
systems. Molluscs also have a muscular foot, which is usually used for movement.
Some species have well-developed eyes and other sense organs. The octopus has a
relatively large brain and is capable of learning complex tasks.
coelom

shell
heart
nephridium
stomach

mouth muscle
anus excurrent
siphon

muscle siphons

mantle cavity incurrent

gills siphon
intestine

mantle cavity

foot

Figure 3.33 The internal anatomy of a clam illustrates the well-developed organ systems
in molluscs.

116 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

 <H3> <Reflecting
Learning Check
subsection>
31. Compare and contrast external and internal 34. Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast a
fertilization. polyp and a medusa.
32. How do sponges differ from other animals? 35. Use Figure 3.31 as a guide to list the main
33. What are the three major classes of cnidarians, characteristics of segmented worms.
and what three traits do they have in common? 36. Name three classes of molluscs and the ecosystems
they can each occupy.

<H3> Echinoderms
Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) include sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers,
and sand dollars, which are shown in Figure 3.34. Echinoderms are marine animals
with radial symmetry, spiny endoskeletons, and tube feet. An endoskeleton is an
internal skeleton that protects organs and provides support for muscle attachment.
In echinoderms, the endoskeleton is made of calcium carbonate plates, often with
spines attached. A thin layer of skin covers the endoskeleton. Tube feet are small
muscular, fluid-filled tubes that end in structures that are similar to suction cups.
Echinoderms have a water-vascular system, which is a system of closed tubes that
includes the tube feet. By using muscles, the animal forces water into the tube feet,
making them extend. In some sea stars, the force applied by tube feet is strong enough
to open mollusc shells, as shown in Figure 3.34 (D).

A B

C D

Figure 3.34 (A) Sea urchins, (B) sea cucumbers, and (C) sand dollars are all members of
the echinoderm phylum. (D) A sea star uses its tube feet to open the two shells of a clam.

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 117

 <H3> Arthropods
The majority of animal species are arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda), making up the
exoskeleton an
external skeleton largest animal phylum. Arthropods include spiders, scorpions, crustaceans (such as
<inline term organs,
that protects with lobsters), and insects. The term arthropod means jointed foot, and arthropods are
definition reveal>
provides support for characterized by having legs made up of movable sections connected by joints. They
muscle attachment, and also have a body divided into segments and a hard exoskeleton, as shown in the
protects against water
loss and predation examples in Table 3.5. The exoskeleton, which is constructed of protein and chitin,
is periodically shed or moulted as the animal grows. Its rigidity protects the animal,
and it provides points of attachment for the muscles that move the legs. Because
the exoskeleton also resists drying out, this feature enabled arthropods to colonize
terrestrial ecosystems several hundred million years ago.
Table 3.5 Characteristics of Arthropod Groups
Arthropod Group Distinguishing Characteristics Example
Chelicerates: • two body segments—a cephalothorax and
spiders, mites, and scorpions abdomen
• six pairs of jointed appendages
• no antennae
• special appendages for feeding
• some are poisonous

Myriapods: • each segment has one or two pairs of legs

millipedes and centipedes • have a single pair of antennae and, in most
cases, simple eyes
• live in moist habitats, under logs or stones
• centipedes are poisonous
• millipedes are not poisonous

Crustaceans: • five pairs of jointed appendages

crabs, lobsters, shrimp, • two pairs of antennae
and barnacles • have fewer body segments, with a tendency
for segments in the head and thorax regions to
fuse and become specialized

Insects: • three body segments—head, thorax, and

beetles, bees, butterflies, abdomen
moths, ants, and flies • three pairs of legs
• one or two pairs of wings, or no wings
• mouthparts specialized for siphoning,
piercing, sucking, and chewing

118 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

<H2> Vertebrate Animals
Vertebrate animals (Phylum Chordata) are the most familiar group of animals. notochord a flexible,
The roughly 50 000 species in this phylum are divided into five major classes—fish, rod-shaped structure
<inline term with
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Animals in Phylum Chordata have several found in chordate
definition reveal>
important features in common. One significant feature is a notochord, a rod-shaped animals; during
vertebrate development
structure that extends the length of the body, used for the attachment of movement
it is replaced by the spine
muscles. A second important feature of chordates is a dorsal nerve cord, a tube-shaped
cartilage the
cord that extends along the back of the body. flexible, non-bony,
Most chordates are vertebrates. In vertebrate animals, the notochord forms in the tough material
<inline term with
embryo. During development, the nerve cord becomes the brain and spinal cord, which found in vertebrate
definition reveal>
are eventually enclosed in the skull and spine respectively. endoskeletons

<H3> Fish
About half of all vertebrate species are fish. They occupy freshwater and saltwater
habitats. Fish range in size from the 12 m whale shark to a dwarf carp, less than a
centimetre long, which is found in Asian forest swamps.
Lampreys, shown in Figure 3.35 (A), are the oldest living vertebrates. Like all fish,
they have gills to obtain dissolved oxygen from water. But unlike more recently evolved
fish, they are jawless and lack paired fins and bony skeleton. They rely on a suction
mouth for holding on to food. The sea lamprey has managed to invade the Great Lakes
using the lock system made for shipping. This has caused devastation to native fish
populations, including lake trout.
The two major groups of fish developed around 400 million years ago. These groups, SuggestedInvestigation
shown in Figure 3.35, have paired fins and jaws. The first are the sharks and rays (Class
Inquiry Investigation 3-D,
Chondrichthyes). Like the lampreys, they have a skeleton of cartilage rather than bone.
Classifying Arthropods
The second are the bony fish (Class Osteichthyes), a group that contains guppies, tuna,
and salmon. As the name implies, bony fish have a skeleton made of bone. Most bony fish
have an air sac called a swim bladder. By filling the swim bladder with oxygen and then
emptying it, a fish is able to rise and sink in the water column.

B C

Figure 3.35 (A) The sea lamprey is thought to be the most ancient of all living vertebrates.
It is jawless and has a cartilaginous skeleton. This species uses its mouth to hold on to and
penetrate the bodies of prey. (B) The cartilaginous fish include the sharks and rays, like this
manta. (C) The bony fish include the vast majority of the Earth’s current fish diversity, such as
Ontario’s pumpkinseed sunfish.

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 119

 <H3> Amphibians
The fossil record of about 360 million years ago shows that the fins of some of the
tetrapod a vertebrate
with twoterm
pairswith
of limbs; bony fish changed over time into limbs. These organisms, which now include modern
<inline
an amphibian, reptile, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, are known as tetrapods. The first limbs
definition reveal>
bird, or mammal were basically modified fins. However, the structural diversity of limbs has increased
dramatically over time, leading to the legs of frogs, the wings of birds, and the arms of
humans, to name a few.
The first tetrapods to appear and live a portion of their life cycle on land were the
amphibians (Class Amphibia). Most amphibians are in one of two orders, the frogs and
toads (Order Anura) and the salamanders (Order Urodela), as shown in Figure 3.36.
In addition to lungs, most amphibians use their moist skin to assist in gas exchange.
Most species reproduce using external fertilization.
In many places on Earth, dramatic declines in amphibian populations have been
well documented since the 1980s. Some species with limited distributions, such as
Costa Rica’s golden toads, have disappeared completely, while other species have
experienced population crashes. Human activities that change climate or that increase
habitat destruction, pollution, and the movement of diseases around Earth are all being
considered as contributing factors.

A B

Figure 3.36 In Ontario, there are representatives of the two major amphibian orders.
The bullfrog (A) is an anuran (frogs and toads), and the spotted salamander (B) is a urodelan
(salamanders and newts).

<H3> Reptiles
The first members of Class Reptilia appear in the fossil record about 300 million years
ago, and the first dinosaurs date back to about 250 million years ago. Today, there
are four major groups remaining, placed in three orders: lizards and snakes (Order
Squamata), turtles (Order Testudines), and crocodilians (Order Crocodilia), shown
in Figure 3.37.
Unlike amphibians, which remain tied to wet ecosystems, reptiles have body scales
that create a waterproof barrier that helps prevent dehydration in dry air. Lacking the
moist skin of amphibians, most reptiles use only their lungs for gas exchange. Shelled
eggs that also resist drying out represent a second advantage that reptiles have for
land-based existence. Fertilization in reptiles is internal. After egg and sperm join
inside the female, several layers of membranes develop around the egg prior to the
secretion of the shell. This type of egg is referred to as an amniotic egg.
Female reptiles deposit eggs in places that provide environmental heat for
incubation, such as sun-warmed sand or a pile of rotting vegetation. Commonly, the
incubation temperature determines the sex of the offspring. A few species of reptiles,
especially those that live in colder environments, give birth to live offspring rather
than laying eggs.

120 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

 A B

C D

Figure 3.37 The four major groups of living reptiles are the snakes, lizards, turtles, and
crocodilians. The eastern foxsnake (A), five-lined skink (B), and wood turtle (C) are all Ontario
residents. The gavial (D) is an endangered species on the Indian subcontinent.

<activity header>
<H1> <Nel-ONBio11U-U01-C03-L10>
Activity
<H1 label>Activity 3.3 Classifying Animals

As you have read, animals are organized into phyla based on Questions
<H2>
similarities and differences in their structure and way of life. 1. Which of the animals on the list are invertebrates?
<H2> Materials Which are vertebrates?

• reference books 2. What is the main difference between invertebrates

• computer with Internet access and vertebrates?
3. Which animals on the list are echinoderms?
<H2> Procedure Which are arthropods? What are some of the main
1. Use reference books or the Internet to determine the differences between organisms in these two phyla?
phylum into which each organism listed below is classified.
4. Which two examples on the list are worms? Explain
2. Create a table to record the classification of each animal why these species are not in the same phylum.
and the characteristics of each phylum.

<H3> <black
Animals from Eight Phyla
themed
• leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) • housefly (Musca domestica)
aside, 2
• common comet star (Linckia guildingii) • barrel sponge (Xestospongia testudinaria)
• Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) column>
• Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis)
• black-footed spider (Cheiracanthium mildei) • monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)
• brown snake (Storeria dekayi) • blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)
• freshwater planarian (Triclad planarian) • green frog (Rana clamitans)
• green finger sponge (Iotrochota birotulata) • giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila)
• elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) • sand dollar (Clypeaster subdepressus)
• jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) • northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis)
• swordfish (Xiphias gladius)

<H3> <Reflecting
Learning Check
subsection>
37. What are tube feet and what are they used for? 40. What are some possible advantages of having a swim
38. Describe the advantages of the insect exoskeleton. bladder?
39. What features do animals in Phylum Chordata have 41. Why are birds and mammals called tetrapods?
in common? 42. List four reasons why reptiles were able to move into
dry, terrestrial environments.

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 121

 <H3> Birds
Birds (Class Aves) are defined as a separate class, but evolutionary biologists have
found evidence that birds are related to at least one group of dinosaurs. This makes
them highly modified reptiles, as shown in Figure 3.38. Among the best evidence for
the link between birds and reptiles are dinosaur fossils that clearly show some small
species were feathered and had wing-like forelimbs. Birds also have scales on their legs,
and there are skeletal similarities between birds and dinosaur fossils.

Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

extinct
salamanders frogs turtles lizards snakes crocodilians birds mammals
dinosaurs

dinosaurs

reptiles & birds mammals

Time

aquatic larvae the amniotic egg

tetrapod body

Figure 3.38 Among the tetrapods, the amphibians and the mammals are clearly separate
groups, based on evolutionary history. Birds are considered a separate class (Aves), but current
thinking is that they are really a group of modified dinosaurs.

There are differences between reptiles and birds, too, and this has led to some
ectothermy the
reliance on disagreements among biologists. Reptiles, for example, are ectothermic and have a
<inline term with
environmental heat for three-chambered heart. Birds are endothermic and have a four-chambered heart, like
determining internal
definition reveal> mammals. Birds also have a high body temperature and a unique respiratory system.
body temperature A bird’s respiratory system promotes one-way movement of air through the use of air
endothermy the sacs that connect to the lungs.
use of metabolic
<inline term with
heat to maintain a
There are almost 9000 species of birds on Earth. Their structural diversity is great,
definition reveal>
high, constant body ranging from the small black-capped chickadee to the giant running ostrich, both
temperature shown in Figure 3.39. Birds first appeared in the fossil record about 150 million years
ago. Most birds can fly. Most also have weight-saving adaptations for flight, in addition
to feathered wings. Bones that are lightweight and hollow, a toothless skull, and a
compact body all help keep body weight low. More than half of all living birds have
distinctive song-like voices and calls, and they are commonly known as songbirds.

A B

Figure 3.39 (A) Black-capped chickadees are small songbirds whose range covers parts of Canada
and the United States. (B) Ostriches are large birds that do not fly. They live in desert and grassland
regions of Africa.

122 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

<H3> Mammals
The most distinctive features of mammals are the mammary glands of females.
mammary gland a
Mammary glands produce and secrete milk to nourish developing young, as shown in mammalian
<inline term gland
withthat
Figure 3.40. Mammals are also distinguished by having hair. Hair has multiple functions produces
definitionand secretes
reveal>
in mammals, including insulation, camouflage, waterproofing, and communication. milk for nourishing
Specialized hairs can be used in defence, such as the quills of porcupines. Some types developing young
of hair, such as eyelashes, are used for sensory detection. In some species, the hair is placenta an organ in
the pregnant uterus that
greatly reduced, such as in naked mole rats, elephants, marine mammals, and humans. <inline term
exchanges with and
nutrients
definition reveal>
oxygen between the
mother and developing
offspring

Figure 3.40 The most

distinguishing characteristic
of mammals is that they
have mammary glands used
to nurse their young.

Mammals have other traits in common, too. These include being endothermic,
having hearts with four chambers, and having highly developed brains. Class
Mammalia is divided into three main groups: momotremes, marsupials, and placental
mammals. The characteristics of each group are summarized in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Characteristics of Mammal Groups
Mammal Group Distinguishing Characteristics Example SuggestedInvestigation
Monotremes • egg-laying mammals
duck-billed platypus ThoughtLab Investigation
• only living examples are the
3-B, Classification Guide to
duck-billed platypus and the
echidna Park Mammals
• found only in Australia and
New Guinea

Marsupials • pouched mammals koala bear

• have a short gestation period
(the amount of time offspring
develop in the uterus)
• mostly found in Australia
• examples include koala bears and
kangaroos
• opossum is the only North
American marsupial
Placental • have a placenta
mammals • have great diversity in species
and structure
• include bears, bats, whales,
primates, and humans

polar bear

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • NEL 123

<Nel-ONBio11U-U01-C03-L11>

<H1>Review: The Animal Kingdom

Section 3.4 RE V I E W
<H2> <info aside> • Most amphibians depend on aquatic ecosystems.
Section Summary
• Animals are heterotrophic eukaryotes that ingest • Reptiles include the now extinct dinosaurs and perhaps
their food. also the modern birds.
• Animals exhibit different types of body symmetry, • Most mammals, including humans, are placental and
including radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry. have long gestation periods.
• The first vertebrates were marine, but the tetrapods
include several successful classes of terrestrial animals.

<H2> Review Questions

1. C Use Figure 3.25 as a guide to sketch an animal 10. C Use a table to compare and contrast the
with radial symmetry and an animal with bilateral characteristics of the four groups of arthropods
symmetry. Write a caption for your sketches. identified in Table 3.5 on page 118. The characteristics
2. K/U What is a coelom, and what does it provide you could look at are number of body segments, pairs
coelomate animals? of legs, antennae, and other features.
3. C Aphids reproduce both sexually and asexually. 11. T/I Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled

Create an image of the life cycle of aphids. Include both swim bladders for buoyancy. Predict what would
the asexual and sexual reproductive components, and happen to a shark if it stopped swimming for a long
their relationship to environmental conditions. period of time.
4. K/U Describe how cnidarians use their tentacles to 12. C Identify some of the environmental changes that
obtain nourishment. ecologists think may be contributing to widespread
amphibian declines. For each issue, state what you
5. A The Portuguese man of war lives at the surface
think could be done to solve the problem.
of the ocean. It has an air bladder that allows it to float
on the surface. Below the main body dangle long 13. C Make a T-chart that lists the three features of
tentacles which occasionally reach 50 metres in length reptiles that enable them to occupy drier terrestrial
below the surface. Each tentacle bears stinging, habitats than amphibians in one column. In the second
venom-filled thread-like structures that sting and kill column, explain how each feature benefits the reptile in
small sea creatures such as small fish and shrimp. a terrestrial habitat.
Based on this information, identify the phylum of this 14. T/I As birds evolved they developed the ability to
organism and identify its basic body form. fly, which gives them much greater mobility than most
6. K/U What is a mantle? mammals. Unlike a dog pregnant with a litter of
puppies, a bird is unable to carry its developing
7. C Use a T-chart to show why molluscs are
offspring in its body. How are laying and incubating
considered to be more complex than flatworms.
eggs outside the body an adaptation for flying?
8. K/U Into which phylum is the organism below
classified? What are the main characteristics of
organisms in this phylum?

15. T/I The only egg-laying monotremes are found in

and near Australia, which is also where most of the
marsupials are. The placental mammals occur in
greater numbers and are more diverse elsewhere. If you
9. K/U Explain how an adaptation such as an assume that monotremes and marsupials evolved
exoskeleton allows insects to inhabit terrestrial before placental mammals, write out a hypothesis
ecosystems. about how this pattern may have come about.

124 NEL • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things