OPTICS

What is light?
Light is electromagnetic radiation which shows both the properties of waves and particles.
Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that allows the human eye to see or makes objects
visible. It is also defined as visible radiation to the human eye. Photons, which are tiny packets
of energy, are found in light. Light always moves in a straight line.
A few important points about light

 Light travels in a straight line. Objects in its path cause light to bend or refract.
 The speed of light is exactly 299 792 km per second.
 This is the speed when light is travelling in a vacuum and not obstructed by the
atmosphere.
 Travelling at the speed of light, you could go around Earth 7.5 times in a second
 Eyeglasses can correct vision because light changes speed when it passes from air to a
glass or plastic lens; this causes the rays to bend.
 Light is made up of energy.
THEORY OF LIGHT
Newton’s corpuscular theory of light

 Newton’s corpuscular theory of light is based on the following points

 Light consists of very tiny particles known as “corpuscular”.
 These corpuscles on emission from the source of light travel in straight line with
 high velocity.
 When these particles enter the eyes, they produce image of the object or sensation
 of vision.
 Corpuscles of different colors have different sizes.
Quantum theory of light (1905)

 Quantum theory was put forward by MAX-PLANCK in 1905. According to quantum

theory
 Energy radiated or absorbed cannot have any fractional value. This energy must be an
integral multiple of a fixed quantity of energy. This quantity is called Quantum.
 Energy released or absorbed is always in the form of packets of energy or bundles of
energy. These packets of energy are known as QUANTA or PHOTONS.
Huysgens’s wave theory of light (1678)

 Each point in a source of light sends out waves in all directions in hypothetical medium
called "ETHER".
 Light is a form of energy.
 Light travels in the form of waves.
 A medium is necessary for the propagation of waves & the whole space is filled with an
imaginary medium called Ether.
 Light waves have very short-wave length.
Electromagnetic theory of light(1860)

 Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation.

 Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves of electric and magnetic fields that travel
through space at the speed of light.
 It can be described by its frequency, wavelength, and amplitude.
 Different frequencies of electromagnetic radiation correspond to different types of
radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
 Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter through the electric and magnetic fields,
causing various effects such as heating, ionization, and excitation.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

There are many kinds of energy in the universe. The energy given off from the sun is radiant
energy, scientifically called electromagnetic radiation. Produced by nuclear reactions at the core
of the sun, this energy streams from the surface of the sun in waves of different lengths. The
shortest and longest wavelengths are invisible to our eyes, but the medium wavelengths are the
visible radiation we call sunlight. Most of the sun’s energy is released in these visible wavelengths.
 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

All substances have kinetic energy that is expressed by vibrations of their atoms or molecules.
The vibrations result in radiation. The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is a name given to all of
the different types of radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is energy that spreads out as it travels.
Visible light radiation that comes from a lamp in someone’s house or radio wave radiation that
comes from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. Other examples of EM
radiation are microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet radiation, X- rays and gamma rays. Hotter, more
energetic objects and events create higher energy radiation than cool objects. Only extremely hot
objects or particles moving at very high speeds can create high-energy radiation like X-rays and
gamma rays.

Interference of light
Interference of light is the phenomena of multiple light waves interacting with one another
under certain circumstances, causing the combined amplitudes of the waves to either
increase or decrease. Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example,
light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves or matter waves.
Conditions of interference
When waves come together they can interfere constructively or destructively. To set up a stable
and clear interference pattern, two conditions must be met:
1. The sources of the waves must be coherent, which means they emit identical waves with a
constant phase difference.
2. The waves should be monochromatic - they should be of a single wavelength.

What is monochromatic wave?

Monochromatic wave means single wavelength. Note: Usually, the light we see around us
exists with multiple wavelengths or frequencies. Monochromatic light is light that has only one
wavelength or frequency. Sunlight has multiple frequencies or wavelengths of light in them so
they are called polychromatic light.
Coherent sources
The source which emits a light wave with the same frequency, wavelength and phase or having a
constant phase difference is known as a coherent source.

There are two types of interference.

1. Constructive Interference
2. Destructive Interference

Constructive Interference
When two light waves superpose with each other in such a way that the crest of one wave falls on
the crest of the second wave, and trough of one wave falls on the trough of the second wave, then
the resultant wave has larger amplitude and it is called constructive interference.
Fig: Constructive interference

Destructive Interference
When two light waves superpose with each other in such a way that the crest of one wave
coincides the trough of the second wave, then the amplitude of resultant wave becomes zero and it
is called destructive interference.

Fig: Destructive interference

What is Polarization?
The process by which light waves vibrating in different planes can be made to vibrate in a
particular plane is called polarization of light. Sound waves in a gas or liquid do not exhibit
polarization, since the oscillation is always in the direction the wave travels. In an electromagnetic
wave, both the electric field and magnetic field are oscillating but in different directions.
Applications of Polarization

 Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.

 Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress analysis tests.
 Three-dimensional movies are produced and shown with the help of polarization.
 Polarization is used for differentiating between transverse and longitudinal waves.
 Infrared spectroscopy uses polarization.
 It is used in seismology to study earthquakes.
 In Chemistry, the chirality of organic compounds is tested using polarization techniques.

Reflection
Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different
media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common
examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves.
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light (it also happens with sound, water and other waves) as it
passes from one transparent substance into another. This bending by refraction makes it
possible for us to have lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms and rainbows. Even our eyes depend
upon this bending of light.

Snell's law of refraction

1. The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the
point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
 a constant.

Diffraction
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object.The amount
of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening. If the
opening is much larger than the light's wavelength,the bending will be almost unnoticeable.
However, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is considerable, and easily
seen with the open eye.

Condition of diffraction
There are two conditions for the production of diffraction
1. In case of straight edge: The edge should be very sharp and its width is to be
equal to or is of the order of the wavelength, λ of light.
2. In case of thin hole: the diameter of the hole should be extremely very small
such that it is equal to or is of the order of the wavelength λ of light.
Fresnel’s class of diffraction

 When the source of light and the screen are at finite distance from the inside obstacle, then
the diffraction observed due to the obstacle is called the Fresnel class of diffraction.
  In this type of diffraction wave fronts are generally spherical or cylindrical. This Type of
diffraction occurs in a straight edge, fine wire and narrow slit.

Fraunhofer’s class of diffraction

 When the source of light and the screen are effectively at infinite distance from the
obstacle or aperture causing diffraction, then that type of diffraction is called Fraunhofer’s
class of diffraction.
 In this type of diffraction wave fronts incident on the obstacle or aperture is plane.