CLASSIFICATION OF QUALITY OF DRINKING

WATER USING MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUE

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of

Bachelor of Engineering degree in Computer Science and Engineering

By

Bishwadeep ghosh

(38110085)

Bharat Kaushik

(38110078)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING

SATHYABAMA

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)

Accredited with Grade “A” by NAAC

JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI SALAI, CHENNAI - 600 119

 MARCH - 2022

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Project Report is the bonafide work of BISHWADEEP GHOSH.
(38110085)
BHARAT KAUSHIK. (38110078) who carried out the project entitled “CLASSIFICATION OF
QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER USING MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUE” under my
supervision from
November 2021 to March 2022.

INTERNAL GUIDE

Dr. J. Refonaa

Head of the Department

Dr.A.Lakshmanan,ME,Ph.D..,

Submitted for Viva voce Examination held on

Internal Examiner External Examiner
 DECLARATION

We BISHWADEEP GHOSH and BHARAT KAUSHIK hereby declare that the Project Report entitled

CLASSIFICATION OF QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER USING MACHINE LEARNING

TECHNIQUE done under the guidance of Dr. J. Refonaa(Internal) is submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering / Technology degree in Computer science and
engineering.
DATE:

PLACE: SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATES:

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am pleased to acknowledge my sincere thanks to Board of Management of

SATHYABAMA for their kind encouragement in doing this project and for
completing it successfully. I am grateful to them.

I convey my thanks to Dr. T.Sasikala M.E., Ph.D, Dean, School of Computing

Dr. L. Lakshmanan M.E., Ph.D. , and Dr.S.Vigneshwari M.E., Ph.D. Heads of

the Department of Computer Science and Engineering for providing necessary
support and details at the right time during the progressive reviews.

I would like to express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to my Project

Guide Dr./Mr./Ms for his valuable guidance, suggestions and constant
encouragement paved way for the successful completion of my project work.

I wish to express my thanks to all Teaching and Non-teaching staff members of

the Department of Computer Science and Engineering who were helpful in
many ways for the completion of the project.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

SL.NO TITLE PAGE.NO

01 ABSTRACT
02 EXISTING SYSTEM

2.1 DRAWBACKS
INTRODUCTION

03 3.1 DATA SCIENCE

3.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

04 MACHINE LEARNING
05 PREPARING DATASET
06 PROPOSED SYSTEM

6.1 ADVANTAGES
07 LITERATURE SURVEY
SYSTEM STUDY

8.1 OBJECTIVES

08 8.2 PROJECT GOAL

8.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

09 FEASIBILITY STUDY
10 LIST OF MODULES
PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

11 11.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

11.2 NON-FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

12 ENVIRONMENT REQUIREMENT
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

13 13.1 ANACONDA NAVIGATOR

 13.2 JUPYTER NOTEBOOK
14 PYTHON
15 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
16 WORKFLOW DIAGRAM
17 USECASE DIAGRAM
18 CLASS DIAGRAM
19 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM
20 SEQUENCE DIAGRAM
21 ER – DIAGRAM
22 MODULE DESCRIPTION

22.1 MODULE DIAGRAM

22.2 MODULE GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED

OUTPUT
23 DEPLOYMENT
24 HTML
25 CSS
26 CODING
27 CONCLUSION
28 FUTURE WORK

LIST OF FIGURES

SL.NO TITLE PAGE.NO

 01 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
02 WORKFLOW DIAGRAM
03 USECASE DIAGRAM
04 CLASS DIAGRAM
05 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM
06 SEQUENCE DIAGRAM
07 ER – DIAGRAM
08 MODULE DIAGRAM

LIST OF SYSMBOLS

NOTATION

S.N NAME NOTATIO DESCRIPTIO

O N N

1. Class Represents a
collection of
 similar entities
grouped
together.

NAME
Associations
represents static
2. Association relationships
between
classes. Roles
representsthe
way the two
classes see each
 other.

3. Actor It aggregates
several classes
into a single
classes.

Aggregation Interaction
between the
4. system and
external
environment
5. Relation uses

(uses)
Used for additional
process
communication.

Extends relationship
is used when one use
6. Relation EXTENDS case is similar to
another use case but
(extends) does a bit more.

7. Communication Communication
between various use
cases.

8. State State of the processs.

9. Initial State Initial state of the

object
10. Final state
F inal state of the
object

11. Control flow

Represents various
control flow between
the states.

Represents decision
making process from
a constraint
12. Decision box

13. Interact ion between

the system and
Usecase external environment.
 Represents physical
modules which is a
collection of
14. Component
components.

Represents physical
modules which are a
15. Node
collection of
components.

A circle in DFD
represents a state or
process which has
16. Data
been triggered due to
Process/State some event or acion.

Represents external
17. External entities such as
keyboard,sensors,etc.
entity

Transition Represents
18. communication that
occurs between
processes.

19. Object Represents the

Lifeline vertical dimensions
that the object
communications.

20. Message Message Represents the

message exchanged.
 1. Abstract:

Generally, Water pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the

water that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. It can be
described as one of the most dangerous threats that the humanity ever faced. It
causes damage to animals, crops, forests etc. To prevent this problem in
transport sectors have to predict water quality from pollutants using machine
learning techniques. Hence, water quality evaluation and prediction has become
an important research area. The aim is to investigate machine learning based
techniques for water quality forecasting by prediction results in best accuracy.
The analysis of dataset by supervised machine learning technique(SMLT) to
capture several information‘s like, variable identification, uni-variate analysis,
bi-variate and multi-variate analysis, missing value treatments and analyse the
data validation, data cleaning/preparing and data visualization will be done on
the entire given dataset. Our analysis provides a comprehensive guide to
sensitivity analysis of model parameters with regard to performance in
prediction of water quality pollution by accuracy calculation. To propose a
machine learning-based method to accurately predict the Water Quality Index
value by prediction results in the form of best accuracy from comparing
supervised classification machine learning algorithms. Additionally, to
compare and discuss the performance of various machine learning algorithms
from the given transport traffic department dataset with evaluation classification
report, identify the confusion matrix and to categorizing data from priority and
the result shows that the effectiveness of the proposed machine learning
algorithm technique can be compared with best accuracy with precision, Recall
and F1 Score.

2. EXISTING SYSTEM

The sensor technology for water quality monitoring (WQM) has

improved during recent years. The cost-effective sensorised tools that can
autonomously measure the essential physical -chemical and biological (PCB)
variables are now readily available and are being deployed on buoys, boats and
ships. Yet, there is a disconnect between the data quality, data gathering and
data analysis due to the lack of standardized approaches for data collection and
processing, spatio-temporal variation of key parameters in water bodies and
new contaminants. Such gaps can be bridged with a network of multiparametric
sensor systems deployed in water bodies using autonomous vehicles such as
marine robots and aerial vehicles to broaden the data coverage in space and
time. Further, intelligent algorithms could be employed for standardised data
analysis and forecasting. The connected sensor technologies for water quality
monitoring (WQM) could provide the bridging solution for current disconnect
between data quality, data gathering and data analysis and enhance the global
data intercomparability. With this in view, this article has reviewed key sensing
technologies, sensor deployment strategies and the emerging methods for data
analysis.

2.1 Drawbacks

 It is not using machine learning and deep learning algorithms

 It can‘t thereby better determine the regularity of water pollutant data and
achieve more accurate prediction results.

3. INTRODUCTION

Domain overview

3.1 Data Science

Data science is an interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods,

processes, algorithms and systems to extract knowledge and insights from
structured and unstructured data, and apply knowledge and actionable insights
from data across a broad range of application domains.
 The term "data science" has been traced back to 1974, when Peter Naur
proposed it as an alternative name for computer science. In 1996, the
International Federation of Classification Societies became the first conference
to specifically feature data science as a topic. However, the definition was still
in flux.

The term ―data science‖ was first coined in 2008 by D.J. Patil, and Jeff
Hammerbacher, the pioneer leads of data and analytics efforts at LinkedIn and
Facebook. In less than a decade, it has become one of the hottest and most
trending professions in the market.

Data science is the field of study that combines domain expertise,

programming skills, and knowledge of mathematics and statistics to extract
meaningful insights from data.

Data science can be defined as a blend of mathematics, business acumen,

tools, algorithms and machine learning techniques, all of which help us in
finding out the hidden insights or patterns from raw data which can be of major
use in the formation of big business decisions.

Data Scientist: Data scientists examine which questions need answering and
where to find the related data. They have business acumen and analytical skills
as well as the ability to mine, clean, and present data. Businesses use data
scientists to source, manage, and analyze large amounts of unstructured data.

3.2 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence

in machines that are programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions.
The term may also be applied to any machine that exhibits traits associated with
a human mind such as learning and problem-solving.
 Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as
opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by humans or animals. Leading AI
textbooks define the field as the study of "intelligent agents" any system that
perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of
achieving its goals. Some popular accounts use the term "artificial intelligence"
to describe machines that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate
with the human mind, such as "learning" and "problem solving", however this
definition is rejected by major AI researchers.

Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes

by machines, especially computer systems. Specific applications of AI include
expert systems, natural language processing, speech recognition and machine
vision.

AI applications include advanced web search engines, recommendation

systems (used by Youtube, Amazon and Netflix), Understanding human speech
(such as Siri or Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g. Tesla), and competing at the
highest level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go), As machines
become increasingly capable, tasks considered to require "intelligence" are
often removed from the definition of AI, a phenomenon known as the AI effect.
For instance, optical character recognition is frequently excluded from things
considered to be AI, having become a routine technology.

Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and

in the years since has experienced several waves of optimism, followed by
disappointment and the loss of funding (known as an "AI winter"), followed by
new approaches, success and renewed funding. AI research has tried and
discarded many different approaches during its lifetime, including simulating
the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of
knowledge and imitating animal behavior. In the first decades of the 21st
century, highly mathematical statistical machine learning has dominated the
field, and this technique has proved highly successful, helping to solve many
challenging problems throughout industry and academia.

The various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals

and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include
reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language
processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General
intelligence (the ability to solve an arbitrary problem) is among the field's long-
term goals. To solve these problems, AI researchers use versions of search and
mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and
methods based on statistics, probability and economics. AI also draws upon
computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.

The field was founded on the assumption that human intelligence "can be
so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it". This raises
philosophical arguments about the mind and the ethics of creating artificial
beings endowed with human-like intelligence. These issues have been explored
by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Science fiction and futurology
have also suggested that, with its enormous potential and power, AI may
become an existential risk to humanity.

As the hype around AI has accelerated, vendors have been scrambling to

promote how their products and services use AI. Often what they refer to as AI
is simply one component of AI, such as machine learning. AI requires a
foundation of specialized hardware and software for writing and training
machine learning algorithms. No one programming language is synonymous
with AI, but a few, including Python, R and Java, are popular.

In general, AI systems work by ingesting large amounts of labeled

training data, analyzing the data for correlations and patterns, and using these
patterns to make predictions about future states. In this way, a chatbot that is fed
examples of text chats can learn to produce life like exchanges with people, or
an image recognition tool can learn to identify and describe objects in images
by reviewing millions of examples.

AI programming focuses on three cognitive skills: learning, reasoning

and self-correction.

Learning processes. This aspect of AI programming focuses on acquiring

data and creating rules for how to turn the data into actionable information. The
rules, which are called algorithms, provide computing devices with step-by-step
instructions for how to complete a specific task.

Reasoning processes. This aspect of AI programming focuses on

choosing the right algorithm to reach a desired outcome.

Self-correction processes. This aspect of AI programming is designed to

continually fine-tune algorithms and ensure they provide the most accurate
results possible.

AI is important because it can give enterprises insights into their

operations that they may not have been aware of previously and because, in
some cases, AI can perform tasks better than humans. Particularly when it
comes to repetitive, detail-oriented tasks like analyzing large numbers of legal
documents to ensure relevant fields are filled in properly, AI tools often
complete jobs quickly and with relatively few errors.

Artificial neural networks and deep learning artificial intelligence

technologies are quickly evolving, primarily because AI processes large
amounts of data much faster and makes predictions more accurately than
humanly possible.

Natural Language Processing (NLP):

Natural language processing (NLP) allows machines to read and

understand human language. A sufficiently powerful natural language
processing system would enable natural-language user interfaces and the
acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources, such as
newswire texts. Some straightforward applications of natural language
processing include information retrieval, text mining, question answering and
machine translation. Many current approaches use word co-occurrence
frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. "Keyword spotting"
strategies for search are popular and scalable but dumb; a search query for
"dog" might only match documents with the literal word "dog" and miss a
document with the word "poodle". "Lexical affinity" strategies use the
occurrence of words such as "accident" to assess the sentiment of a document.
Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as
others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level.
Beyond semantic NLP, the ultimate goal of "narrative" NLP is to embody a full
understanding of commonsense reasoning. By 2019, transformer-based deep
learning architectures could generate coherent text

4. MACHINE LEARNING

Machine learning is to predict the future from past data. Machine learning
(ML) is a type of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides computers with the
ability to learn without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning focuses
on the development of Computer Programs that can change when exposed to
new data and the basics of Machine Learning, implementation of a simple
machine learning algorithm using python. Process of training and prediction
involves use of specialized algorithms. It feed the training data to an algorithm,
and the algorithm uses this training data to give predictions on a new test data.
Machine learning can be roughly separated in to three categories. There are
supervised learning, unsupervised learning and reinforcement learning.
Supervised learning program is both given the input data and the corresponding
labeling to learn data has to be labeled by a human being beforehand.
Unsupervised learning is no labels. It provided to the learning algorithm. This
algorithm has to figure out the clustering of the input data. Finally,
Reinforcement learning dynamically interacts with its environment and it
receives positive or negative feedback to improve its performance.
Data scientists use many different kinds of machine learning algorithms
to discover patterns in python that lead to actionable insights. At a high level,
these different algorithms can be classified into two groups based on the way
they ―learn‖ about data to make predictions: supervised and unsupervised
learning. Classification is the process of predicting the class of given data
points. Classes are sometimes called as targets/ labels or categories.
Classification predictive modeling is the task of approximating a mapping
function from input variables(X) to discrete output variables(y). In machine
learning and statistics, classification is a supervised learning approach in which
the computer program learns from the data input given to it and then uses this
learning to classify new observation. This data set may simply be bi-class (like
identifying whether the person is male or female or that the mail is spam or non-
spam) or it may be multi-class too. Some examples of classification problems
are: speech recognition, handwriting recognition, bio metric identification,
document classification etc.
 Analyses Predicts

Trains

Fig: Process of Machine learning

Supervised Machine Learning is the majority of practical machine

learning uses supervised learning. Supervised learning is where have input
variables (X) and an output variable (y) and use an algorithm to learn the
mapping function from the input to the output is y = f(X). The goal is to
approximate the mapping function so well that when you have new input data
(X) that you can predict the output variables (y) for that data. Techniques of
Supervised Machine Learning algorithms include logistic regression, multi-class
classification, Decision Trees and support vector machines etc. Supervised
learning requires that the data used to train the algorithm is already labeled with
correct answers. Supervised learning problems can be further grouped into
Classification problems. This problem has as goal the construction of a succinct
model that can predict the value of the dependent attribute from the attribute
variables. The difference between the two tasks is the fact that the dependent
attribute is numerical for categorical for classification. A classification model
attempts to draw some conclusion from observed values. Given one or more
inputs a classification model will try to predict the value of one or more
outcomes. A classification problem is when the output variable is a category,
such as ―red‖ or ―blue‖.

5. Preparing the Dataset:

 aluminium - dangerous if greater than 2.8
  ammonia - dangerous if greater than 32.5
 arsenic - dangerous if greater than 0.01
 barium - dangerous if greater than 2
 cadmium - dangerous if greater than 0.005
 chloramine - dangerous if greater than 4
 chromium - dangerous if greater than 0.1
 copper - dangerous if greater than 1.3
 fluoride - dangerous if greater than 1.5
 bacteria - dangerous if greater than 0
 viruses - dangerous if greater than 0
 lead - dangerous if greater than 0.015
 nitrates - dangerous if greater than 10
 nitrites - dangerous if greater than 1
 mercury - dangerous if greater than 0.002
 perchlorate - dangerous if greater than 56
 radium - dangerous if greater than 5
 selenium - dangerous if greater than 0.5
 silver - dangerous if greater than 0.1
 uranium - dangerous if greater than 0.3
 is safe - class attribute {0 - not safe, 1 – safe

Access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a

component of effective policy for health protection. This is important as a
health and development issue at a national, regional and local level. In some
regions, it has been shown that investments in water supply and sanitation can
yield a net economic benefit, since the reductions in adverse health effects and
health care costs outweigh the costs of undertaking the interventions.

6. Proposed System:

The proposed method is to build a machine learning model for Water

quality. The process carries from data collection where the past data related to
Water qualities are collected. Data mining is a commonly used technique for
processing enormous data in the domain. The water if found before proper
treatment can save lives. Machine learning is now applied and mostly used in
health care where it reduces the manual effort and better model makes error less
which leads in saving the life. The data analysis is done on the dataset proper
variable identification done that is both the dependent variables and independent
variables are found. Then proper machine learning algorithm are applied on the
dataset where the pattern of data is learnt. After applying different algorithms, a
better algorithm is used for the prediction of outcome.

6.1 Advantages:

 These reports are to the investigation of applicability of machine learning

techniques for water quality forecasting in operational conditions.
 Finally, it highlights some observations on future research issues,
challenges, and needs.
 7. LITERATURE SURVEY

General

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points
of current knowledge on and or methodological approaches to a particular topic.
It is secondary sources and discuss published information in a particular subject
area and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time
period. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature
on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may
be needed in the area and precedes a research proposal and may be just a simple
summary of sources. Usually, it has an organizational pattern and combines
both summary and synthesis.

A summary is a recap of important information about the source, but a

synthesis is a re-organization, reshuffling of information. It might give a new
interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations or it
might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates.
Depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and
advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant of them. Loan default trends
have been long studied from a socio-economic stand point. Most economics
surveys believe in empirical modeling of these complex systems in order to be
able to predict the loan default rate for a particular individual. The use of
machine learning for such tasks is a trend which it is observing now. Some of
the survey‘s to understand the past and present perspective of loan approval or
not.

Review of Literature Survey

Title : Predictive Analysis of Water Quality Parameters using Deep Learning

Author: Archana Solanki, Himanshu Agrawal, Kanchan Khare

Year : September 2015

Lakes and reservoirs are important water resources. Reservoirs are vital
water resources to support all living organism. They provide clean water and
habitat for a complex variety of aquatic life. Water from such resources can be
used for diverse purposes such as, industry usage, agriculture and supplies for
drinking water and recreation and aesthetic value. Apart from this, reservoirs
also helpful to get hydro-electric power, flood control and scenic beauty. Water
collected in such resources can be utilized in drought situation also.
Unfortunately, these important resources are being polluted and the quality of
water is being influenced by numerous factors. The quality of water is
deteriorated by anthropogenic activities, indiscriminate disposal of sewage,
human activities and also industry waste. Water quality monitoring of reservoirs
is essential in exploitation of aquatic resources conservation. The quality of
water helps in regulating the biotic diversity and biomass, energy and rate of
succession. In order to reduce effect of contaminated water, it is essential to
assess different aspects of water quality. Predicting water quality parameters a
few steps ahead can be beneficial to achieve this. The main objective of this
study is to provide fairly accurate predictions for variable data. The study shows
that deep learning techniques which use unsupervised learning to provide
accurate results as compared to the techniques based on supervised learning.
The comparison of results show that robustness can be achieve by denoising
autoencoder and deep belief network and also successfully handle the variability
in the data. Merit of the unsupervised learning algorithms are evaluated on the
basis of metrics such as mean absolute error and mean square error to examine
the error rate of prediction.

Title: Water Quality Monitoring for Disease Prediction using Machine Learning

Author: Prajakta Patil , Sukanya More , Atharv Deshpande.

Year: 2020

Access to pure drinking water and sanitation has been marked as a fundamental
human right as „The Human Right to Water and Sanitation‟ by the United
Nations General Assembly on 28 July 2010. Water related diseases are the
primary cause of diseases and deaths around the world with more than 3.4
million deaths per year. Lack of monitoring of water sources and inability to
anticipate the proliferation of waterborne diseases are found at the root of these
deaths. There has been a compelling need for disease prediction based on water
quality. The present study was focused on monitoring of water quality
parameters and using these parameters to predict probable waterborne diseases.
The main objective of study was to apply machine learning techniques to water
quality data in order to make predictions about waterborne diseases. The work
involved collecting observations of some of the water quality parameters by
leveraging the Internet of Things (IOT). The detailed data, involving
observations of all the necessary parameters, was collected from the West
Bengal Pollution Control Board‘s Water Quality Information System. Gradient
Boosting Classifier was trained and tested on collected data. The accuracy of
result was found to be 0.92 and 0.95 on cross-validation and hold-out data,
respectively. Once trained, the model started making predictions based on
primary data. The predicted diseases were conveyed in the form of alerts using
Push bullet service. The study thus proposed usability of water quality
parameters in early prediction of water related diseases.

Title : Implementation of Machine Learning Methods for Monitoring and

Predicting Water Quality Parameters

Author: Gasim Hayder , , Isman Kurniawan , Hauwa Mohammed Mustafa.

Year : 11.09.2020

The importance of good water quality for human use and consumption
can never be underestimated, and its quality is determined through effective
monitoring of the water quality index. Different approaches have been
employed in the treatment and monitoring of water quality parameters (WQP).
Presently, water quality is carried out through laboratory experiments, which
requires costly reagents, skilled labor, and consumes time. Thereby making it
necessary to search for an alternative method. Recently, machine learning tools
have been successfully implemented in the monitoring, estimation, and
predictions of river water quality index to provide an alternative solution to the
limitations of laboratory analytical methods. In this study, the potentials of one
of the machine learning tools (artificial neural network) were explored in the
predictions and estimation of the Kelantan River basin. Water quality data
collected from the 14 stations of the River basin was used for modeling and
predicting (WQP). As for WQP analysis, the results obtained from this study
show that the best prediction was obtained from the prediction of pH. The low
kurtosis values of pH indicate that the appearance of outliers give a negative
impact on the performance. As for WQP analysis for each station, we found that
the WQP prediction in station 1, 2, and 3 give the good results. This is related to
the available data of those stations that are more than the available data in other
stations, except station 8.

Title : PREDICTION OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETER OF AMBIKA

RIVER BY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE BASED MODELS

Author: Radhika ,K. Hirapra ,Dr. S.S. Singh , Tanmay Rathod

Year : R April 2018

Several techniques such as; Fuzzy Inference System (FIS) and Neural
Network (NN) are used for developing of the predictive models to estimate
parameters of water quality. The main objective of this study is to compare
between the predictive ability of the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model
and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) model to estimate the
Dissolved Oxygen(DO) using data from the sampling sites station at Billimora-
amalsad Road on Ambika River in Gujarat, India. The data is obtained from the
Gujarat pollution control board(GPCB), during 2010-2017. Total Ten
parameters of water quality namely Dissolved Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen
Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand ,ph, Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate, Total
Dissolved Solids, Calcium, Magnesium are used to developed the models. The
experimental results indicate that the ANFIS model provides a higher
correlation coefficient (R2 =0.885) in Training and (R2 =0.818) in Testing with
a lower root mean square error (RMSE=0.2307) in training and (RMSE=
0.3574) in Training than the corresponding (RMSE= 0.3863) ANN mode
Title : Water Quality Assessment with Water Quality Indices

Author: Sivaranjani S.1, Amitava Rakshit2 and Samrath Singh

Year : 20,july, 2015

A water quality index provides a single number that expresses overall

water quality at a certain location and time based on several water quality
parameters. Water quality index (WQI) is valuable and unique rating to depict
the overall water quality status in a single term that is helpful for the selection
of appropriate treatment technique to meet the concerned issues. These indices
utilize various physio-chemical and biological parameters and have been
resulted as an outcome of efforts and research and development carried out by
different government agencies and experts in this area globally. This review
paper includes the water quality assessment with water quality indices being
used globally
 8. SYSTEM STUDY

8.1 Overview of the system

Water pollution is one of the biggest fears for the green globalization. In
order to ensure the safe supply of the drinking water the quality needs to be
monitor in real time

In the 21st century, there were lots of inventions, but at the same time
were pollutions, global warming and so on are being formed, because of this
there is no safe drinking water for the world‘s pollution. Nowadays, water
quality monitoring in real time faces challenges because of global warming
limited water resources, growing population, etc. Hence there is need of
developing better methodologies to predicting the water quality parameters in
real time

 Define a problem
 Preparing data
 Evaluating algorithms
 Improving results
 Predicting results
8.2 Project Goals

 Exploration data analysis of variable identification

 Loading the given dataset

 Import required libraries packages
 Analyze the general properties
 Find duplicate and missing values
 Checking unique and count values

 Uni-variate data analysis

 Rename, add data and drop the data

 To specify data type

 Exploration data analysis of bi-variate and multi-variate

 Plot diagram of pairplot, heatmap, bar chart and Histogram

 Method of Outlier detection with feature engineering

 Pre-processing the given dataset

 Splitting the test and training dataset
 Comparing the Decision tree and Logistic regression model and
random forest etc

 Comparing algorithm to predict the result

 Based on the best accuracy

8.3 Objectives

The goal is to develop a machine learning model for Predicting water

Quality using, to potentially replace the updatable supervised machine learning
classification models by predicting results in the form of best accuracy by
comparing supervised algorithm.

8.4 Problem Description/ Problem Statements

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies that occur when

pollutant are indirectly or directly discharge into water bodies without adequate
treatment to remove the harmful sediment It will give an affect to ecosystem
and human life and become an issue nowadays.

8.5 Scope of the Project

The scope of this project is to investigate a Water Quality dataset to find

the quality using machine learning technique. To find the water quality is based
on the actual water conditions its not easy one to predict, but using the AI
machine learning technique compare with different algorithms we can build a
predictive models to predict the water quality index. Using metrics (accuracy,
precision, recall, etc...) we can validate the model accuracy.

9. Feasibility study:
Exploratory Data Analysis of Water Quality Prediction

Multiple datasets from different sources would be combined to form a

generalized dataset, and then different machine learning algorithms would be
applied to extract patterns and to obtain results with maximum accuracy.

Data Wrangling
In this section of the report will load in the data, check for cleanliness,
and then trim and clean given dataset for analysis. Make sure that the document
steps carefully and justify for cleaning decisions.

Data collection

The data set collected for predicting given data is split into Training set
and Test set. Generally, 7:3 ratios are applied to split the Training set and Test
set. The Data Model which was created using Random Forest, logistic, Decision
tree algorithms, K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) and Support vector classifier
(SVC) are applied on the Training set and based on the test result accuracy, Test
set prediction is done.

Building the classification model

The predicting the water quality problem, decision tree algorithm prediction
model is effective because of the following reasons: It provides better results in
classification problem.

 It is strong in preprocessing outliers, irrelevant variables, and a mix of

continuous, categorical and discrete variables.
  It produces out of bag estimate error which has proven to be unbiased in
many tests and it is relatively easy to tune with.

Construction of a Predictive Model

Machine learning needs data gathering have lot of past data‘s. Data gathering
have sufficient historical data and raw data. Before data pre-processing, raw
data can‘t be used directly. It‘s used to preprocess then, what kind of algorithm
with model. Training and testing this model working and predicting correctly
with minimum errors. Tuned model involved by tuned time to time with
improving the accuracy.
 Fig: Process of dataflow diagram

10. List of Modules:

 Data Preprocessing Technique

 Data analysis of visualization
 Comparing Algorithm with prediction in the form of best accuracy result
 Deployment using Flask


11.Project Requirements

General:

Requirements are the basic constrains that are required to develop a

system. Requirements are collected while designing the system. The following
are the requirements that are to be discussed.

1. Functional requirements

2. Non-Functional requirements

3. Environment requirements
 A. Hardware requirements

B. software requirements

10. Functional requirements:

The software requirements specification is a technical specification of

requirements for the software product. It is the first step in the requirements
analysis process. It lists requirements of a particular software system. The
following details to follow the special libraries like sk-learn, pandas, numpy,
matplotlib and seaborn.

11.1 Non-Functional Requirements:

Process of functional steps,

1. Problem define
2. Preparing data
3. Evaluating algorithms
4. Improving results
5. Prediction the result

11.2 Environmental Requirements:

1. Software Requirements:

Operating System : Windows

Tool : Anaconda with Jupyter Notebook

2. Hardware requirements:
 Processor : Pentium IV/III

Hard disk : minimum 80 GB

RAM : minimum 2 GB

13. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

Anaconda is a free and open-source distribution of the Python and R

programming languages for scientific computing (data science, machine
learning applications, large-scale data processing, predictive analytics, etc.), that
aims to simplify package management and deployment. Package versions are
managed by the package management system ―Conda‖. The Anaconda
distribution is used by over 12 million users and includes more than 1400
popular data-science packages suitable for Windows, Linux, and MacOS. So,
Anaconda distribution comes with more than 1,400 packages as well as the
Conda package and virtual environment manager called Anaconda Navigator
and it eliminates the need to learn to install each library independently. The
open source packages can be individually installed from the Anaconda
repository with the conda install command or using the pip install command that
is installed with Anaconda. Pip packages provide many of the features of conda
packages and in most cases they can work together. Custom packages can be
made using the conda build command, and can be shared with others by
uploading them to Anaconda Cloud,[10] PyPI or other repositories. The default
installation of Anaconda2 includes Python 2.7 and Anaconda3 includes Python
3.7. However, you can create new environments that include any version of
Python packaged with conda.

13.1 ANACONDA NAVIGATOR

Anaconda Navigator is a desktop graphical user interface (GUI) included

in Anaconda® distribution that allows you to launch applications and easily
manage conda packages, environments, and channels without using command-
line commands. Navigator can search for packages on Anaconda.org or in a
local Anaconda Repository.

Anaconda. Now, if you are primarily doing data science work, Anaconda
is also a great option. Anaconda is created by Continuum Analytics, and it is a
Python distribution that comes preinstalled with lots of useful python libraries
for data science.

Anaconda is a distribution of the Python and R programming languages

for scientific computing (data science, machine learning applications, large-
scale data processing, predictive analytics, etc.), that aims to simplify package
management and deployment.
 In order to run, many scientific packages depend on specific versions of
other packages. Data scientists often use multiple versions of many packages
and use multiple environments to separate these different versions.

The command-line program conda is both a package manager and an

environment manager. This helps data scientists ensure that each version of
each package has all the dependencies it requires and works correctly.

Navigator is an easy, point-and-click way to work with packages and

environments without needing to type conda commands in a terminal window.
You can use it to find the packages you want, install them in an environment,
run the packages, and update them – all inside Navigator.

The following applications are available by default in Navigator:

 JupyterLab
 Jupyter Notebook
 Spyder
 PyCharm
 VSCode
 Glueviz
 Orange 3 App
 RStudio
 Anaconda Prompt (Windows only)
 Anaconda PowerShell (Windows only)
 Anaconda Navigator is a desktop graphical user interface (GUI) included
in Anaconda distribution.
 Navigator allows you to launch common Python programs and easily
manage conda packages, environments, and channels without using command-
line commands. Navigator can search for packages on Anaconda Cloud or in a
local Anaconda Repository.

Anaconda comes with many built-in packages that you can easily find
with conda list on your anaconda prompt. As it has lots of packages (many of
which are rarely used), it requires lots of space and time as well. If you have
enough space, time and do not want to burden yourself to install small utilities
like JSON, YAML, you better go for Anaconda.

Conda :

Conda is an open source, cross-platform, language-agnostic package

manager and environment management system that installs, runs, and updates
packages and their dependencies. It was created for Python programs, but it can
package and distribute software for any language (e.g., R), including multi-
language projects. The conda package and environment manager is included in
all versions of Anaconda, Miniconda, and Anaconda Repository.

Anaconda is freely available, open source distribution of python and R

programming languages which is used for scientific computations. If you are
doing any machine learning or deep learning project then this is the best place
for you. It consists of many softwares which will help you to build your
machine learning project and deep learning project. these softwares have great
graphical user interface and these will make your work easy to do. you can also
use it to run your python script. These are the software carried by anaconda
navigator.
13.2 JUPYTER NOTEBOOK

This website acts as ―meta‖ documentation for the Jupyter ecosystem. It

has a collection of resources to navigate the tools and communities in this
ecosystem, and to help you get started.

Project Jupyter is a project and community whose goal is to "develop

open-source software, open-standards, and services for interactive computing
across dozens of programming languages". It was spun off from IPython in
2014 by Fernando Pérez.

Notebook documents are documents produced by the Jupyter Notebook

App, which contain both computer code (e.g. python) and rich text elements
(paragraph, equations, figures, links, etc…). Notebook documents are both
human-readable documents containing the analysis description and the results
(figures, tables, etc..) as well as executable documents which can be run to
perform data analysis.

Installation: The easiest way to install the Jupyter Notebook App is installing a
scientific python distribution which also includes scientific python packages.
The most common distribution is called Anaconda

Running the Jupyter Notebook

Launching Jupyter Notebook App: The Jupyter Notebook App can be launched
by clicking on the Jupyter Notebook icon installed by Anaconda in the start
menu (Windows) or by typing in a terminal (cmd on Windows): ―jupyter
notebook‖
This will launch a new browser window (or a new tab) showing the Notebook
Dashboard, a sort of control panel that allows (among other things) to select
which notebook to open.

When started, the Jupyter Notebook App can access only files within its start-up
folder (including any sub-folder). No configuration is necessary if you place
your notebooks in your home folder or subfolders. Otherwise, you need to
choose a Jupyter Notebook App start-up folder which will contain all the
notebooks.

Save notebooks: Modifications to the notebooks are automatically saved every

few minutes. To avoid modifying the original notebook, make a copy of the
notebook document (menu file -> make a copy…) and save the modifications
on the copy.

Executing a notebook: Download the notebook you want to execute and put it in
your notebook folder (or a sub-folder of it).
 Launch the jupyter notebook app

 In the Notebook Dashboard navigate to find the notebook: clicking on its

name will open it in a new browser tab.

 Click on the menu Help -> User Interface Tour for an overview of the
Jupyter Notebook App user interface.
 You can run the notebook document step-by-step (one cell a time) by
pressing shift + enter.
  You can run the whole notebook in a single step by clicking on the menu
Cell -> Run All.
 To restart the kernel (i.e. the computational engine), click on the menu
Kernel -> Restart. This can be useful to start over a computation from
scratch (e.g. variables are deleted, open files are closed, etc…).

Purpose: To support interactive data science and scientific computing across all
programming languages.

File Extension: An IPYNB file is a notebook document created by Jupyter

Notebook, an interactive computational environment that helps scientists
manipulate and analyze data using Python.

JUPYTER Notebook App: The Jupyter Notebook App is a server-client

application that allows editing and running notebook documents via a web
browser. The Jupyter Notebook App can be executed on a local desktop
requiring no internet access (as described in this document) or can be installed
on a remote server and accessed through the internet.

In addition to displaying/editing/running notebook documents, the Jupyter

Notebook App has a ―Dashboard‖ (Notebook Dashboard), a ―control panel‖
showing local files and allowing to open notebook documents or shutting down
their kernels.
kernel: A notebook kernel is a ―computational engine‖ that executes the code
contained in a Notebook document. The ipython kernel, referenced in this guide,
executes python code. Kernels for many other languages exist (official kernels).
When you open a Notebook document, the associated kernel is automatically
launched. When the notebook is executed (either cell-by-cell or with menu Cell
-> Run All), the kernel performs the computation and produces the results.
Depending on the type of computations, the kernel may consume significant
CPU and RAM. Note that the RAM is not released until the kernel is shut-down

Notebook Dashboard: The Notebook Dashboard is the component which is

shown first when you launch Jupyter Notebook App. The Notebook Dashboard
is mainly used to open notebook documents, and to manage the running kernels
(visualize and shutdown).
The Notebook Dashboard has other features similar to a file manager, namely
navigating folders and renaming/deleting files

14. PYTHON
Introduction:

Python is an interpreted high-level general-purpose programming

language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with its use of
significant indentation. Its language constructs as well as its object-oriented
approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-
scale projects.

Python is dynamically-typed and garbage-collected. It supports multiple

programming paradigms, including structured (particularly, procedural), object-
oriented and functional programming. It is often described as a "batteries
included" language due to its comprehensive standard library.

Guido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s, as a

successor to the ABC programming language, and first released it in 1991 as
Python 0.9.0. Python 2.0 was released in 2000 and introduced new features,
such as list comprehensions and a garbage collection system using reference
counting. Python 3.0 was released in 2008 and was a major revision of the
language that is not completely backward-compatible. Python 2 was
discontinued with version 2.7.18 in 2020.

Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming

languages

History:

Python was conceived in the late 1980s by Guido van Rossum at

Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to
ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL, capable of
exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Its
implementation began in December 1989. Van Rossum shouldered sole
responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he
announced his "permanent vacation" from his responsibilities as Python's
Benevolent Dictator For Life, a title the Python community bestowed upon him
to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-maker. In
January 2019, active Python core developers elected a 5-member "Steering
Council" to lead the project. As of 2021, the current members of this council
are Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon, Carol Willing, Thomas Wouters, and Pablo
Galindo Salgado.

Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new
features, including a cycle-detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode.

Python 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008. It was a major revision of

the language that is not completely backward-compatible. Many of its major
features were backported to Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x version series. Releases of
Python 3 include the 2 to 3 utility, which automates (at least partially) the
translation of Python 2 code to Python 3.

Python 2.7's end-of-life date was initially set at 2015 then postponed to
2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be
forward-ported to Python 3. No more security patches or other improvements
will be released for it. With Python 2's end-of-life, only Python 3.6.x and later
are supported.

Python 3.9.2 and 3.8.8 were expedited as all versions of Python

(including 2.7) had security issues, leading to possible remote code execution
and web cache poisoning.

Design Philosophy & Feature

 Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented
programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many of its
features support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming
(including by meta-programming and meta-objects (magic methods)). Many
other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract and
logic programming.

Python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and

a cycle-detecting garbage collector for memory management. It also features
dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and variable
names during program execution.

Python's design offers some support for functional programming in the

Lisp tradition. It has filter, map and reduce functions; list comprehensions,
dictionaries, sets, and generator expressions. The standard library has two
modules (itertools and functools) that implement functional tools borrowed
from Haskell and Standard ML.

The language's core philosophy is summarized in the document The Zen

of Python (PEP 20), which includes aphorisms such as:

 Beautiful is better than ugly.

 Explicit is better than implicit.
 Simple is better than complex.
 Complex is better than complicated.
 Readability counts.

Rather than having all of its functionality built into its core, Python was
designed to be highly extensible (with modules). This compact modularity has
made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to
existing applications. Van Rossum's vision of a small core language with a large
standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations
with ABC, which espoused the opposite approach.

Python strives for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar while

giving developers a choice in their coding methodology. In contrast to Perl's
"there is more than one way to do it" motto, Python embraces a "there should be
one— and preferably only one —obvious way to do it" design philosophy. Alex
Martelli, a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation and Python book author,
writes that "To describe something as 'clever' is not considered a compliment in
the Python culture."

Python's developers strive to avoid premature optimization, and reject

patches to non-critical parts of the C-Python reference implementation that
would offer marginal increases in speed at the cost of clarity. When speed is
important, a Python programmer can move time-critical functions to extension
modules written in languages such as C, or use PyPy, a just-in-time compiler.
Cython is also available, which translates a Python script into C and makes
direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.

Python's developers aim to keep the language fun to use. This is reflected
in its name a tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python and in
occasionally playful approaches to tutorials and reference materials, such as
examples that refer to spam and eggs (a reference to a Monty Python sketch)
instead of the standard foo and bar.

A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which can

have a wide range of meanings related to program style. To say that code is
pythonic is to say that it uses Python idioms well, that it is natural or shows
fluency in the language, that it conforms with Python's minimalist philosophy
and emphasis on readability. In contrast, code that is difficult to understand or
reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is called
unpythonic.

Users and admirers of Python, especially those considered

knowledgeable or experienced, are often referred to as Pythonistas

Syntax and Semantics :

Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is

visually uncluttered, and it often uses English keywords where other languages
use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly brackets to
delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are allowed but are rarely, if
ever, used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.

Indentation :
Main article: Python syntax and semantics & Indentation

Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or

keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain
statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block.
Thus, the program's visual structure accurately represents the program's
semantic structure. This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule, which
some other languages share, but in most languages indentation does not have
any semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.

Statements and control flow :

Python's statements include (among others):

 The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =.

 The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with
else and elif (a contraction of else-if).
 The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each
element to a local variable for use by the attached block.
 The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition
is true.
 The Try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block
to be caught and handled by except clauses; it also ensures that clean-up
code in a finally block will always be run regardless of how the block exits.
 The raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught
exception.
 The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local
namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming.
 The def statement, which defines a function or method.
 The with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager
(for example, acquiring a lock before the block of code is run and releasing
the lock afterwards, or opening a file and then closing it), allowing resource-
acquisition-is-initialization (RAII) - like behavior and replaces a common
try/finally idiom.
 The break statement, exits from a loop.
 The continue statement, skips this iteration and continues with the next item.
 The del statement, removes a variable, which means the reference from the
name to the value is deleted and trying to use that variable will cause an
error. A deleted variable can be reassigned.
 The pass statement, which serves as a NOP. It is syntactically needed to
create an empty code block.
 The assert statement, used during debugging to check for conditions that
should apply.
 The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function and
yield is also an operator. This form is used to implement co-routines.
 The return statement, used to return a value from a function.
 The import statement, which is used to import modules whose functions or
variables can be used in the current program.

The assignment statement (=) operates by binding a name as a reference

to a separate, dynamically-allocated object. Variables may be subsequently
rebound at any time to any object. In Python, a variable name is a generic
reference holder and does not have a fixed data type associated with it.
However, at a given time, a variable will refer to some object, which will have a
type. This is referred to as dynamic typing and is contrasted with statically-
typed programming languages, where each variable may only contain values of
a certain type.

Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations,

and, according to Guido van Rossum, it never will.[80][81] However, better
support for co-routine-like functionality is provided, by extending Python's
generators. Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; information was passed
uni-directionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5, it is possible to pass
information back into a generator function, and from Python 3.3, the
information can be passed through multiple stack levels.

Expressions :

Some Python expressions are similar to those found in languages such as

C and Java, while some are not:

 Addition, subtraction, and multiplication are the same, but the behavior of
division differs. There are two types of divisions in Python. They are floor
 division (or integer division) // and floating-point/division. Python also uses
the ** operator for exponentiation.
 From Python 3.5, the new @ infix operator was introduced. It is intended to
be used by libraries such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.
 From Python 3.8, the syntax :=, called the 'walrus operator' was introduced.
It assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression.
 In Python, == compares by value, versus Java, which compares numerics by
value and objects by reference. (Value comparisons in Java on objects can
be performed with the equals() method.) Python's is operator may be used to
compare object identities (comparison by reference). In Python, comparisons
may be chained, for example A<=B<=C.
 Python uses the words and, or, not for or its boolean operators rather than
the symbolic &&, ||, ! used in Java and C.
 Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension as well as a
more general expression termed a generator expression.
 Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however,
these are limited in that the body can only be one expression.
 Conditional expressions in Python are written as x if c else y (different in
order of operands from the c ? x : y operator common to many other
languages).
 Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1,
2, 3], are mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (dictionary
keys must be immutable in Python). Tuples are written as (1, 2, 3), are
immutable and thus can be used as the keys of dictionaries, provided all
elements of the tuple are immutable. The + operator can be used to
concatenate two tuples, which does not directly modify their contents, but
rather produces a new tuple containing the elements of both provided tuples.
Thus, given the variable t initially equal to (1, 2, 3), executing t = t + (4, 5)
 first evaluates t + (4, 5), which yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), which is then assigned
back to t, thereby effectively "modifying the contents" of t, while
conforming to the immutable nature of tuple objects. Parentheses are
optional for tuples in unambiguous contexts.
 Python features sequence unpacking wherein multiple expressions, each
evaluating to anything that can be assigned to (a variable, a writable
property, etc.), are associated in an identical manner to that forming tuple
literals and, as a whole, are put on the left-hand side of the equal sign in an
assignment statement. The statement expects an iterable object on the right-
hand side of the equal sign that produces the same number of values as the
provided writable expressions when iterated through and will iterate through
it, assigning each of the produced values to the corresponding expression on
the left.
 Python has a "string format" operator %. This functions analogously ton
printf format strings in C, e.g. ―spam=%s eggs=%d‖ % (―blah‖,2) evaluates
to ―spam=blah eggs=2‖. In Python 3 and 2.6+, this was supplemented by the
format() method of the str class, e.g. ―spam={0}
eggs={1}‖.format(―blah‖,2). Python 3.6 added "f-strings": blah = ―blah‖;
eggs = 2; f‗spam={blah} eggs={eggs}‘
 Strings in Python can be concatenated, by "adding" them (same operator as
for adding integers and floats). E.g. ―spam‖ + ―eggs‖ returns ―spameggs‖.
Even if your strings contain numbers, they are still added as strings rather
than integers. E.g. ―2‖ + ―2‖ returns ―2‖.
 Python has various kinds of string literals:
o Strings delimited by single or double quote marks. Unlike in Unix shells,
Perl and Perl-influenced languages, single quote marks and double quote
marks function identically. Both kinds of string use the backslash (\) as
 an escape character. String interpolation became available in Python 3.6
as "formatted string literals".
o Triple-quoted strings, which begin and end with a series of three single
or double quote marks. They may span multiple lines and function like
here documents in shells, Perl and Ruby.
o Raw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with an r.
Escape sequences are not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where
literal backslashes are common, such as regular expressions and
Windows-style paths. Compare "@-quoting" in C#.
 Python has array index and array slicing expressions on lists, denoted as
a[Key], a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step]. Indexes are zero-based, and
negative indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start
index up to, but not including, the stop index. The third slice parameter,
called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped and reversed. Slice
indexes may be omitted, for example a[:] returns a copy of the entire list.
Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.

In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly

enforced, in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby.
This leads to duplicating some functionality. For example:

 List comprehensions vs. for-loops

 Conditional expressions vs. if blocks
 The eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the
former is for expressions, the latter is for statements.
 Statements cannot be a part of an expression, so list and other
comprehensions or lambda expressions, all being expressions, cannot contain
statements. A particular case of this is that an assignment statement such as a=1
cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement. This
has the advantage of avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an assignment
operator = for an equality operator == in conditions: if (c==1) {…} is
syntactically valid (but probably unintended) C code but if c=1: … causes a
syntax error in Python.

Methods :

Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the syntax
instance.method(argument) is, for normal methods and functions, syntactic
sugar for Class.method(instance, argument). Python methods have an explicit
self parameter access instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this) in
some other object-oriented programming languages (e.g., C++, Java, Objective-
C, or Ruby). Apart from this Python also provides methods, sometimes called
d-under methods due to their names beginning and ending with double-
underscores, to extend the functionality of custom class to support native
functions such as print, length, comparison, support for arithmetic operations,
type conversion, and many more.

Typing :

Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable
names. Type constraints are not checked at compile time; rather, operations on
an object may fail, signifying that the given object is not of a suitable type.
Despite being dynamically-typed, Python is strongly-typed, forbidding
operations that are not well-defined (for example, adding a number to a string)
rather than silently attempting to make sense of them.

Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes,

which are most often used for object-oriented programming. New instances of
classes are constructed by calling the class (for example, SpamClass() or
EggsClass()), and the classes are instances of the metaclass type (itself an
instance of itself), allowing meta-programming and reflection.

Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes: old-style and new-
style. The syntax of both styles is the same, the difference being whether the
class object is inherited from, directly or indirectly (all new-style classes inherit
from object and are instances of type). In versions of Python 2 from Python 2.2
onwards, both kinds of classes can be used. Old-style classes were eliminated in
Python 3.0.

The long-term plan is to support gradual typing and from Python 3.5, the
syntax of the language allows specifying static types but they are not checked in
the default implementation, CPython. An experimental optional static type
checker named mypy supports compile-time type checking.

Working Process:

 Download and install anaconda and get the most useful package for
machine learning in Python.
 Load a dataset and understand its structure using statistical summaries
and data visualization.
 machine learning models, pick the best and build confidence that the
accuracy is reliable.
 Python is a popular and powerful interpreted language. Unlike R, Python is a
complete language and platform that you can use for both research and
development and developing production systems. There are also a lot of
modules and libraries to choose from, providing multiple ways to do each task.
It can feel overwhelming.

The best way to get started using Python for machine learning is to complete a
project.

 It will force you to install and start the Python interpreter (at the very least).
 It will give you a bird‘s eye view of how to step through a small project.
 It will give you confidence, maybe to go on to your own small projects.

When you are applying machine learning to your own datasets, you are
working on a project. A machine learning project may not be linear, but it has a
number of well-known steps:

 Define Problem.
 Prepare Data.
 Evaluate Algorithms.
 Improve Results.
 Present Results.

The best way to really come to terms with a new platform or tool is to
work through a machine learning project end-to-end and cover the key steps.
Namely, from loading data, summarizing data, evaluating algorithms and
making some predictions.

Here is an overview of what we are going to cover:

1. Installing the Python anaconda platform.
2. Loading the dataset.
3. Summarizing the dataset.
4. Visualizing the dataset.
5. Evaluating some algorithms.
6. Making some predictions.

15. System Architecture

16. Work flow diagram
Fig: Workflow Diagram
 17. Use Case Diagram

Use case diagrams are considered for high level requirement analysis of a
system. So when the requirements of a system are analyzed the functionalities
are captured in use cases. So, it can say that uses cases are nothing but the
system functionalities written in an organized manner.
 18. Class Diagram:

Class diagram is basically a graphical representation of the static view of

the system and represents different aspects of the application. So a collection of
class diagrams represent the whole system. The name of the class diagram
should be meaningful to describe the aspect of the system. Each element and
their relationships should be identified in advance Responsibility (attributes and
methods) of each class should be clearly identified for each class minimum
number of properties should be specified and because, unnecessary properties
will make the diagram complicated. Use notes whenever required to describe
some aspect of the diagram and at the end of the drawing it should be
understandable to the developer/coder. Finally, before making the final version,
the diagram should be drawn on plain paper and rework as many times as
possible to make it correct.
 19. Activity Diagram:

Activity is a particular operation of the system. Activity diagrams are not

only used for visualizing dynamic nature of a system but they are also used to
construct the executable system by using forward and reverse engineering
techniques. The only missing thing in activity diagram is the message part. It
does not show any message flow from one activity to another. Activity diagram
is some time considered as the flow chart. Although the diagrams looks like a
flow chart but it is not. It shows different flow like parallel, branched,
concurrent and single.
 20. Sequence Diagram:

Sequence diagrams model the flow of logic within your system in a

visual manner, enabling you both to document and validate your logic, and are
commonly used for both analysis and design purposes. Sequence diagrams are
the most popular UML artifact for dynamic modeling, which focuses on
identifying the behavior within your system. Other dynamic modeling
techniques include activity diagramming, communication diagramming, timing
diagramming, and interaction overview diagramming. Sequence diagrams,
along with class diagrams and physical data models are in my opinion the most
important design-level models for modern business application development.
 21. Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)

An entity relationship diagram (ERD), also known as an entity

relationship model, is a graphical representation of an information system that
depicts the relationships among people, objects, places, concepts or events
within that system. An ERD is a data modeling technique that can help define
business processes and be used as the foundation for a relational database.
Entity relationship diagrams provide a visual starting point for database design
that can also be used to help determine information system requirements
throughout an organization. After a relational database is rolled out, an ERD can
still serve as a referral point, should any debugging or business process re-
engineering be needed later.
22. Module description:

Data Pre-processing

Validation techniques in machine learning are used to get the error rate of the
Machine Learning (ML) model, which can be considered as close to the true error rate
of the dataset. If the data volume is large enough to be representative of the
population, you may not need the validation techniques. However, in real-world
scenarios, to work with samples of data that may not be a true representative of the
population of given dataset. To finding the missing value, duplicate value and
description of data type whether it is float variable or integer. The sample of data used
to provide an unbiased evaluation of a model fit on the training dataset while tuning
model hyper parameters.

The evaluation becomes more biased as skill on the validation dataset is

incorporated into the model configuration. The validation set is used to evaluate a
given model, but this is for frequent evaluation. It as machine learning engineers use
this data to fine-tune the model hyper parameters. Data collection, data analysis, and
the process of addressing data content, quality, and structure can add up to a time-
consuming to-do list. During the process of data identification, it helps to understand
your data and its properties; this knowledge will help you choose which algorithm to
use to build your model.

A number of different data cleaning tasks using Python‘s Pandas library and
specifically, it focus on probably the biggest data cleaning task, missing values and it
able to more quickly clean data. It wants to spend less time cleaning data, and more
time exploring and modeling.

Some of these sources are just simple random mistakes. Other times, there
can be a deeper reason why data is missing. It‘s important to understand these
different types of missing data from a statistics point of view. The type of
missing data will influence how to deal with filling in the missing values and to
detect missing values, and do some basic imputation and detailed statistical
approach for dealing with missing data. Before, joint into code, it‘s important to
understand the sources of missing data. Here are some typical reasons why data
is missing:

 User forgot to fill in a field.

 Data was lost while transferring manually from a legacy database.

 There was a programming error.

 Users chose not to fill out a field tied to their beliefs about how the results would
be used or interpreted.

Variable identification with Uni-variate, Bi-variate and Multi-variate analysis:

 import libraries for access and functional purpose and read the given dataset
 General Properties of Analyzing the given dataset
 Display the given dataset in the form of data frame
 show columns
 shape of the data frame
 To describe the data frame
 Checking data type and information about dataset
 Checking for duplicate data
 Checking Missing values of data frame
 Checking unique values of data frame
 Checking count values of data frame
 Rename and drop the given data frame
  To specify the type of values
 To create extra columns

MODULE DIAGRAM

GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED OUTPUT

input : data

output : removing noisy data

Data Validation/ Cleaning/Preparing Process

Importing the library packages with loading given dataset. To analyzing the
variable identification by data shape, data type and evaluating the missing values,
duplicate values. A validation dataset is a sample of data held back from training your
model that is used to give an estimate of model skill while tuning model's and
procedures that you can use to make the best use of validation and test datasets when
evaluating your models. Data cleaning / preparing by rename the given dataset and
drop the column etc. to analyze the uni-variate, bi-variate and multi-variate process.
The steps and techniques for data cleaning will vary from dataset to dataset. The
primary goal of data cleaning is to detect and remove errors and anomalies to increase
the value of data in analytics and decision making.

Exploration data analysis of visualization

Data visualization is an important skill in applied statistics and machine learning.

Statistics does indeed focus on quantitative descriptions and estimations of data. Data
visualization provides an important suite of tools for gaining a qualitative
understanding. This can be helpful when exploring and getting to know a dataset and
can help with identifying patterns, corrupt data, outliers, and much more. With a little
domain knowledge, data visualizations can be used to express and demonstrate key
relationships in plots and charts that are more visceral and stakeholders than measures
of association or significance. Data visualization and exploratory data analysis are
whole fields themselves and it will recommend a deeper dive into some the books
mentioned at the end.

Sometimes data does not make sense until it can look at in a visual form, such as
with charts and plots. Being able to quickly visualize of data samples and others is an
important skill both in applied statistics and in applied machine learning. It will
discover the many types of plots that you will need to know when visualizing data in
Python and how to use them to better understand your own data.

 How to chart time series data with line plots and categorical quantities with bar
charts.
 How to summarize data distributions with histograms and box plots.

Pre-processing refers to the transformations applied to our data before feeding

it to the algorithm. Data Preprocessing is a technique that is used to convert the raw
data into a clean data set. In other words, whenever the data is gathered from different
sources it is collected in raw format which is not feasible for the analysis. To
achieving better results from the applied model in Machine Learning method of the
data has to be in a proper manner. Some specified Machine Learning model needs
information in a specified format, for example, Random Forest algorithm does not
support null values. Therefore, to execute random forest algorithm null values have to
be managed from the original raw data set. And another aspect is that data set should
be formatted in such a way that more than one Machine Learning and Deep Learning
algorithms are executed in given dataset.

False Positives (FP): A person who will pay predicted as defaulter. When actual class
is no and predicted class is yes. E.g. if actual class says this passenger did not survive
but predicted class tells you that this passenger will survive.

False Negatives (FN): A person who default predicted as payer. When actual class is
yes but predicted class in no. E.g. if actual class value indicates that this passenger
survived and predicted class tells you that passenger will die.

True Positives (TP): A person who will not pay predicted as defaulter. These are the
correctly predicted positive values which means that the value of actual class is yes
and the value of predicted class is also yes. E.g. if actual class value indicates that this
passenger survived and predicted class tells you the same thing.

True Negatives (TN): A person who default predicted as payer. These are the
correctly predicted negative values which means that the value of actual class is no
and value of predicted class is also no. E.g. if actual class says this passenger did not
survive and predicted class tells you the same thing.

MODULE DIAGRAM

GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED OUTPUT

input : data

output : visualized data

Comparing Algorithm with prediction in the form of best accuracy result

It is important to compare the performance of multiple different machine

learning algorithms consistently and it will discover to create a test harness to
compare multiple different machine learning algorithms in Python with scikit-learn. It
can use this test harness as a template on your own machine learning problems and
add more and different algorithms to compare. Each model will have different
performance characteristics. Using resampling methods like cross validation, you can
get an estimate for how accurate each model may be on unseen data. It needs to be
able to use these estimates to choose one or two best models from the suite of models
that you have created. When have a new dataset, it is a good idea to visualize the data
using different techniques in order to look at the data from different perspectives. The
same idea applies to model selection. You should use a number of different ways of
looking at the estimated accuracy of your machine learning algorithms in order to
choose the one or two to finalize. A way to do this is to use different visualization
methods to show the average accuracy, variance and other properties of the
distribution of model accuracies.

In the next section you will discover exactly how you can do that in Python
with scikit-learn. The key to a fair comparison of machine learning algorithms is
ensuring that each algorithm is evaluated in the same way on the same data and it can
achieve this by forcing each algorithm to be evaluated on a consistent test harness.

In the example below 4 different algorithms are compared:

 Logistic Regression
 Decision Tree
 Random Forest
 Support Vector Machine

The K-fold cross validation procedure is used to evaluate each algorithm,

importantly configured with the same random seed to ensure that the same splits to the
training data are performed and that each algorithm is evaluated in precisely the same
way. Before that comparing algorithm, Building a Machine Learning Model using
install Scikit-Learn libraries. In this library package have to done preprocessing, linear
model with logistic regression method, cross validating by KFold method, ensemble
with random forest method and tree with decision tree classifier. Additionally,
splitting the train set and test set. To predicting the result by comparing accuracy.
Prediction result by accuracy:

Logistic regression algorithm also uses a linear equation with independent

predictors to predict a value. The predicted value can be anywhere between negative
infinity to positive infinity. It need the output of the algorithm to be classified variable
data. Higher accuracy predicting result is logistic regression model by comparing the
best accuracy.

True Positive Rate(TPR) = TP / (TP + FN)

False Positive rate(FPR) = FP / (FP + TN)

Accuracy: The Proportion of the total number of predictions that is correct otherwise
overall how often the model predicts correctly defaulters and non-defaulters.

Accuracy calculation:

Accuracy = (TP + TN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN)

Accuracy is the most intuitive performance measure and it is simply a ratio of

correctly predicted observation to the total observations. One may think that, if we
have high accuracy then our model is best. Yes, accuracy is a great measure but only
when you have symmetric datasets where values of false positive and false negatives
are almost same.

Precision: The proportion of positive predictions that are actually correct. (When the
model predicts default: how often is correct?)

Precision = TP / (TP + FP)

 Precision is the ratio of correctly predicted positive observations to the total
predicted positive observations. The question that this metric answer is of all
passengers that labeled as survived, how many actually survived? High precision
relates to the low false positive rate. We have got 0.788 precision which is pretty
good.

Recall: The proportion of positive observed values correctly predicted. (The

proportion of actual defaulters that the model will correctly predict)

Recall = TP / (TP + FN)

Recall(Sensitivity) - Recall is the ratio of correctly predicted positive

observations to the all observations in actual class - yes.

F1 Score is the weighted average of Precision and Recall. Therefore, this score takes
both false positives and false negatives into account. Intuitively it is not as easy to
understand as accuracy, but F1 is usually more useful than accuracy, especially if you
have an uneven class distribution. Accuracy works best if false positives and false
negatives have similar cost. If the cost of false positives and false negatives are very
different, it‘s better to look at both Precision and Recall.

General Formula:

F- Measure = 2TP / (2TP + FP + FN)

F1-Score Formula:

F1 Score = 2*(Recall * Precision) / (Recall + Precision)

ALGORITHM AND TECHNIQUES

Algorithm Explanation
 In machine learning and statistics, classification is a supervised learning
approach in which the computer program learns from the data input given to it and then
uses this learning to classify new observation. This data set may simply be bi-class
(like identifying whether the person is male or female or that the mail is spam or non-
spam) or it may be multi-class too. Some examples of classification problems are:
speech recognition, handwriting recognition, bio metric identification, document
classification etc. In Supervised Learning, algorithms learn from labeled data. After
understanding the data, the algorithm determines which label should be given to new
data based on pattern and associating the patterns to the unlabeled new data.

Used Python Packages:

sklearn:

 In python, sklearn is a machine learning package which include a lot of ML

algorithms.
 Here, we are using some of its modules like train_test_split,
DecisionTreeClassifier or Logistic Regression and accuracy_score.

NumPy:

 It is a numeric python module which provides fast maths functions for

calculations.
 It is used to read data in numpy arrays and for manipulation purpose.

Pandas:

 Used to read and write different files.

 Data manipulation can be done easily with data frames.

Matplotlib:

 Data visualization is a useful way to help with identify the patterns from
given dataset.
  Data manipulation can be done easily with data frames.

Logistic Regression

It is a statistical method for analysing a data set in which there are one or more
independent variables that determine an outcome. The outcome is measured with a
dichotomous variable (in which there are only two possible outcomes). The goal of
logistic regression is to find the best fitting model to describe the relationship between
the dichotomous characteristic of interest (dependent variable = response or outcome
variable) and a set of independent (predictor or explanatory) variables. Logistic
regression is a Machine Learning classification algorithm that is used to predict the
probability of a categorical dependent variable. In logistic regression, the dependent
variable is a binary variable that contains data coded as 1 (yes, success, etc.) or 0 (no,
failure, etc.).
 In other words, the logistic regression model predicts P(Y=1) as a function of X.
Logistic regression Assumptions:
o Logistic regression predicts the output of a categorical dependent variable.
qTherefore the outcome must be a categorical or discrete value. It can be either
Yes or No, 0 or 1, true or False, etc. but instead of giving the exact value as 0
and 1, it gives the probabilistic values which lie between 0 and 1.
o Logistic Regression is much similar to the Linear Regression except that how
they are used. Linear Regression is used for solving Regression problems,
whereas Logistic regression is used for solving the classification problems.
 o In Logistic regression, instead of fitting a regression line, we fit an "S" shaped
logistic function, which predicts two maximum values (0 or 1).
o The curve from the logistic function indicates the likelihood of something such
as whether the cells are cancerous or not, a mouse is obese or not based on its
weight, etc.
o Logistic Regression is a significant machine learning algorithm because it has
the ability to provide probabilities and classify new data using continuous and
discrete datasets.
o Logistic Regression can be used to classify the observations using different
types of data and can easily determine the most effective variables used for the
classification. The below image is showing the logistic function:

Logistic Function (Sigmoid Function):

 o The sigmoid function is a mathematical function used to map the predicted
values to probabilities.
o It maps any real value into another value within a range of 0 and 1.
o The value of the logistic regression must be between 0 and 1, which cannot go
beyond this limit, so it forms a curve like the "S" form. The S-form curve is
called the Sigmoid function or the logistic function.

1 / (1 + e^-value)

o In logistic regression, we use the concept of the threshold value, which defines
the probability of either 0 or 1. Such as values above the threshold value tends
to 1, and a value below the threshold values tends to 0.

Assumptions for Logistic Regression:

o The dependent variable must be categorical in nature.

o The independent variable should not have multi-collinearity.

Logistic Regression Equation:

The Logistic regression equation can be obtained from the Linear Regression
equation. The mathematical steps to get Logistic Regression equations are given
below:
 o We know the equation of the straight line can be written as:

o In Logistic Regression y can be between 0 and 1 only, so for this let's divide
the above equation by (1-y):

o But we need range between -[infinity] to +[infinity], then take logarithm of the
equation it will become:

The above equation is the final equation for Logistic Regression.

Type of Logistic Regression:

On the basis of the categories, Logistic Regression can be classified into three types:

o Binary or Binomial

In such a kind of classification, a dependent variable will have only two

possible types either 1 and 0. For example, these variables may represent
success or failure, yes or no, win or loss etc.

o Multinomial

In such a kind of classification, dependent variable can have 3 or more

possible unordered types or the types having no quantitative significance. For
example, these variables may represent ―Type A‖ or ―Type B‖ or ―Type C‖.

o Ordinal

In such a kind of classification, dependent variable can have 3 or more

possible ordered types or the types having a quantitative significance. For
 example, these variables may represent ―poor‖ or ―good‖, ―very good‖,
―Excellent‖ and each category can have the scores like 0,1,2,3.

MODULE DIAGRAM

GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED OUTPUT

input : data

output : getting accuracy

Decision Tree

Introduction to Decision Tree

In general, Decision tree analysis is a predictive modelling tool that can be

applied across many areas. Decision trees can be constructed by an algorithmic
approach that can split the dataset in different ways based on different conditions.
Decisions trees are the most powerful algorithms that falls under the category of
supervised algorithms.
They can be used for both classification and regression tasks. The two main entities
of a tree are decision nodes, where the data is split and leaves, where we got
outcome. The example of a binary tree for predicting whether a person is fit or unfit
providing various information like age, eating habits and exercise habits, is given
below −

In the above decision tree, the question are decision nodes and final outcomes are
leaves. We have the following two types of decision trees.
  Classification decision trees − In this kind of decision trees, the decision
variable is categorical. The above decision tree is an example of classification
decision tree.

 Regression decision trees − In this kind of decision trees, the decision

variable is continuous.

Implementing Decision Tree Algorithm

Gini Index

Important Terminology related to Decision Tree

1. Root Node: It represents the entire population or sample and this further gets
divided into two or more homogeneous sets.
2. Splitting: It is a process of dividing a node into two or more sub-nodes.
3. Decision Node: When a sub-node splits into further sub-nodes, then it is called the
decision node.
4. Leaf / Terminal Node: Nodes do not split is called Leaf or Terminal node.
5. Pruning: When we remove sub-nodes of a decision node, this process is called
pruning. You can say the opposite process of splitting.
6. Branch / Sub-Tree: A subsection of the entire tree is called branch or sub-tree.
7. Parent and Child Node: A node, which is divided into sub-nodes is called a parent
node of sub-nodes whereas sub-nodes are the child of a parent node.

Decision trees classify the examples by sorting them down the tree from the root to
some leaf/terminal node, with the leaf/terminal node providing the classification of the
example.

Each node in the tree acts as a test case for some attribute, and each edge descending
from the node corresponds to the possible answers to the test case. This process is
recursive in nature and is repeated for every subtree rooted at the new node.

Assumptions while creating Decision Tree

Below are some of the assumptions we make while using Decision tree:

 In the beginning, the whole training set is considered as the root.

 Feature values are preferred to be categorical. If the values are continuous then they
are discretized prior to building the model.
 Records are distributed recursively on the basis of attribute values.
 Order to placing attributes as root or internal node of the tree is done by using some
statistical approach.
Entropy

Entropy is a measure of the randomness in the information being processed. The

higher the entropy, the harder it is to draw any conclusions from that information.
Flipping a coin is an example of an action that provides information that is random.

From the above graph, it is quite evident that the entropy H(X) is zero when the
probability is either 0 or 1. The Entropy is maximum when the probability is 0.5
because it projects perfect randomness in the data and there is no chance if perfectly
determining the outcome.

Mathematically Entropy for 1 attribute is represented as:

Where S → Current state, and Pi → Probability of an event i of state S or

Percentage of class i in a node of state S.

Information Gain

Information gain or IG is a statistical property that measures how well a given

attribute separates the training examples according to their target classification.
Constructing a decision tree is all about finding an attribute that returns the highest
information gain and the smallest entropy.
Information gain is a decrease in entropy. It computes the difference between entropy
before split and average entropy after split of the dataset based on given attribute
values. ID3 (Iterative Dichotomiser) decision tree algorithm uses information gain.

Mathematically, IG is represented as:

In a much simpler way, we can conclude that:

Information Gain
Where ―before‖ is the dataset before the split, K is the number of subsets generated by
the split, and (j, after) is subset j after the split.

Split Creation

A split is basically including an attribute in the dataset and a value. We can create a
split in dataset with the help of following three parts −

 Part 1: Calculating Gini Score − We have just discussed this part in the
previous section.

 Part 2: Splitting a dataset − It may be defined as separating a dataset into two

lists of rows having index of an attribute and a split value of that attribute.
 After getting the two groups - right and left, from the dataset, we can calculate
the value of split by using Gini score calculated in first part. Split value will
decide in which group the attribute will reside.

 Part 3: Evaluating all splits − Next part after finding Gini score and splitting
dataset is the evaluation of all splits. For this purpose, first, we must check
every value associated with each attribute as a candidate split. Then we need
to find the best possible split by evaluating the cost of the split. The best split
will be used as a node in the decision tree.

Building a Tree

As we know that a tree has root node and terminal nodes. After creating the root
node, we can build the tree by following two parts −

Part 1: Terminal node creation

While creating terminal nodes of decision tree, one important point is to decide when
to stop growing tree or creating further terminal nodes. It can be done by using two
criteria namely maximum tree depth and minimum node records as follows −

 Maximum Tree Depth − As name suggests, this is the maximum number of

the nodes in a tree after root node. We must stop adding terminal nodes once a
tree reached at maximum depth i.e. once a tree got maximum number of
terminal nodes.

 Minimum Node Records − It may be defined as the minimum number of

training patterns that a given node is responsible for. We must stop adding
terminal nodes once tree reached at these minimum node records or below this
minimum.

Terminal node is used to make a final prediction.

Part 2: Recursive Splitting

As we understood about when to create terminal nodes, now we can start building
our tree. Recursive splitting is a method to build the tree. In this method, once a node
is created, we can create the child nodes (nodes added to an existing node)
recursively on each group of data, generated by splitting the dataset, by calling the
same function again and again.

Prediction

After building a decision tree, we need to make a prediction about it. Basically,
prediction involves navigating the decision tree with the specifically provided row of
data.

We can make a prediction with the help of recursive function, as did above. The
same prediction routine is called again with the left or the child right nodes.

Assumptions

The following are some of the assumptions we make while creating decision tree −

 While preparing decision trees, the training set is as root node.

 Decision tree classifier prefers the features values to be categorical. In case if

you want to use continuous values then they must be done discretized prior to
model building.

 Based on the attribute‘s values, the records are recursively distributed.

 Statistical approach will be used to place attributes at any node position i.e.as
root node or internal node.

Advantages:

 The main advantage of decision trees is how easy they are to interpret. While
other machine Learning models are close to black boxes, decision trees provide a
graphical and intuitive way to understand what our algorithm does.
 Compared to other Machine Learning algorithms Decision Trees require less data
to train.

 They can be used for Classification and Regression.

 They are simple.

 They are tolerant to missing values.

Disadvantages

 They are quite prone to over fitting to the training data and can be sensible to
outliers.

They are weak learners: a single decision tree normally does not make great
predictions, so multiple trees are often combined to make ‗forests‘ to give birth to
stronger ensemble models. This will be discussed in a further post.

Random forest Algorithm

Random Forest is a popular machine learning algorithm that belongs to the supervised
learning technique. It can be used for both Classification and Regression problems in
ML. It is based on the concept of ensemble learning, which is a process of combining
multiple classifiers to solve a complex problem and to improve the performance of the
model.
As the name suggests, "Random Forest is a classifier that contains a number of
decision trees on various subsets of the given dataset and takes the average to improve
the predictive accuracy of that dataset." Instead of relying on one decision tree, the
random forest takes the prediction from each tree and based on the majority votes of
predictions, and it predicts the final output.

The greater number of trees in the forest leads to higher accuracy and prevents the
problem of overfitting.

The below diagram explains the working of the Random Forest algorithm:
Note: To better understand the Random Forest Algorithm, you should have
knowledge of the Decision Tree Algorithm.

Assumptions for Random Forest

Since the random forest combines multiple trees to predict the class of the dataset, it is
possible that some decision trees may predict the correct output, while others may not.
But together, all the trees predict the correct output. Therefore, below are two
assumptions for a better Random forest classifier:

o There should be some actual values in the feature variable of the dataset so that
the classifier can predict accurate results rather than a guessed result.
o The predictions from each tree must have very low correlations.

Why use Random Forest?

Below are some points that explain why we should use the Random Forest algorithm:

o It takes less training time as compared to other algorithms.

o It predicts output with high accuracy, even for the large dataset it runs
efficiently.
o It can also maintain accuracy when a large proportion of data is missing.
How does Random Forest algorithm work?

Random Forest works in two-phase first is to create the random forest by combining N
decision tree, and second is to make predictions for each tree created in the first phase.

The Working process can be explained in the below steps and diagram:

Step-1: Select random K data points from the training set.

Step-2: Build the decision trees associated with the selected data points (Subsets).

Step-3: Choose the number N for decision trees that you want to build.

Step-4: Repeat Step 1 & 2.

Step-5: For new data points, find the predictions of each decision tree, and assign the
new data points to the category that wins the majority votes.

The working of the algorithm can be better understood by the below example:
Example: Suppose there is a dataset that contains multiple fruit images. So, this
dataset is given to the Random forest classifier. The dataset is divided into subsets and
given to each decision tree. During the training phase, each decision tree produces a
prediction result, and when a new data point occurs, then based on the majority of
results, the Random Forest classifier predicts the final decision. Consider the below
image:

MODULE DIAGRAM

GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED OUTPUT

input : data

output : getting accuracy

Implementation in Scikit-learn

For each decision tree, Scikit-learn calculates a nodes importance using Gini
Importance, assuming only two child nodes (binary tree):
 ni sub(j)= the importance of node j

 w sub(j) = weighted number of samples reaching node j

 C sub(j)= the impurity value of node j

 left(j) = child node from left split on node j

 right(j) = child node from right split on node j

sub() is being used as subscript isn‘t available in Medium

See method compute_feature_importances in _tree.pyx

The importance for each feature on a decision tree is then calculated as:

 fi sub(i)= the importance of feature i

 ni sub(j)= the importance of node j

These can then be normalized to a value between 0 and 1 by dividing by the sum of all
feature importance values:
The final feature importance, at the Random Forest level, is it‘s average over all the
trees. The sum of the feature‘s importance value on each trees is calculated and divided
by the total number of trees:

 RFfi sub(i)= the importance of feature i calculated from all trees in the Random
Forest model

 normfi sub(ij)= the normalized feature importance for i in tree j

 T = total number of trees

See method feature_importances_ in forest.py

Notation was inspired by this StackExchange thread which I found incredible useful
for this post.

Implementation in Spark

For each decision tree, Spark calculates a feature‘s importance by summing the gain,
scaled by the number of samples passing through the node:
 fi sub(i) = the importance of feature i

 s sub(j) = number of samples reaching node j

 C sub(j) = the impurity value of node j

See method computeFeatureImportance in treeModels.scala

To calculate the final feature importance at the Random Forest level, first the feature
importance for each tree is normalized in relation to the tree:

 normfi sub(i) = the normalized importance of feature i

 fi sub(i) = the importance of feature i

Then feature importance values from each tree are summed normalized:
 RFfi sub(i)= the importance of feature i calculated from all trees in the Random
Forest model

 normfi sub(ij)= the normalized feature importance for i in tree j

Advantages of Random Forest

o Random Forest is capable of performing both Classification and Regression

tasks.
o It is capable of handling large datasets with high dimensionality.
o It enhances the accuracy of the model and prevents the overfitting issue.

Disadvantages of Random Forest

o Although random forest can be used for both classification and regression
tasks, it is not more suitable for Regression tasks.

Support Vector Machines.

Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one or

the other of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that

assigns new examples to one category or the other, making it a non-

probabilistic binary linear classifier.

The objective of applying SVMs is to find the best line in two dimensions or
the best hyperplane in more than two dimensions in order to help us separate
our space into classes. The hyperplane (line) is found through the maximum

margin, i.e., the maximum distance between data points of both classes.

Don’t you think the definition and idea of SVM look a bit abstract? No worries,

let me explain in details.

Support Vector, Hyperplane, and Margin

 The vector points closest to the hyperplane are known as the support

vector points because only these two points are contributing to the result of
the algorithm, and other points are not. If a data point is not a support vector,
removing it has no effect on the model. On the other hand, deleting the

support vectors will then change the position of the hyperplane.

The dimension of the hyperplane depends upon the number of features. If the

number of input features is 2, then the hyperplane is just a line. If the number
of input features is 3, then the hyperplane becomes a two-dimensional plane.

It becomes difficult to imagine when the number of features exceeds 3.

The distance of the vectors from the hyperplane is called the margin, which is

a separation of a line to the closest class points. We would like to choose a

hyperplane that maximises the margin between classes. The graph below

shows what good margin and bad margin are.

Hard Margin

If the training data is linearly separable, we can select two parallel

hyperplanes that separate the two classes of data, so that the distance
between them is as large as possible.

Soft Margin

As most of the real-world data are not fully linearly separable, we will

allow some margin violation to occur, which is called soft margin classification.

It is better to have a large margin, even though some constraints are violated.
Margin violation means choosing a hyperplane, which can allow some data

points to stay in either the incorrect side of the hyperplane and between the
margin and the correct side of the hyperplane.

In order to find the maximal margin, we need to maximize the margin

between the data points and the hyperplane. In the following session, I will

share the mathematical concepts behind this algorithm.

Linear Algebra Revisited

Before we move on, let’s review some concepts in Linear Algebra.

Maximising the Margin

You probably learned that an equation of a line is y=ax+b. However,

you will often find that the equation of a hyperplane is defined by:
The two equations are just two different ways of expressing the same thing.

For Support Vector Classifier (SVC), we use ���T���+��� where

��� is the weight vector, and ��� is the bias.

You can see that the name of the variables in the hyperplane equation are w

and x, which means they are vectors! A vector has magnitude (size) and

direction, which works perfectly well in 3 or more dimensions. Therefore, the

application of “vector” is used in the SVMs algorithm.

The equation of calculating the Margin.

Cost Function and Gradient Updates

Maximizing-Margin is equivalent to Minimizing Loss.

In the SVM algorithm, we are looking to maximize the margin between the

data points and the hyperplane. The loss function that helps maximize the

margin is hinge loss.

λ=1/C (C is always used for regularization coefficient).

The function of the first term, hinge loss, is to penalize misclassifications. It

measures the error due to misclassification (or data points being closer to the

classification boundary than the margin). The second term is the regularization
term, which is a technique to avoid overfitting by penalizing large coefficients

in the solution vector. The λ(lambda) is the regularization coefficient, and its

major role is to determine the trade-off between increasing the margin size

and ensuring that the xi lies on the correct side of the margin.

“Hinge” describes the fact that the error is 0 if the data point is classified

correctly (and is not too close to the decision boundary).

When the true class is -1 (as in your example), the hinge loss looks like this in

the graph.

We need to minimise the above loss function to find the max-margin classifier.

We can derive the formula for the margin from the hinge-loss. If a data point

is on the margin of the classifier, the hinge-loss is exactly zero. Hence, on the

margin, we have:
Note that ���i is either +1 or -1.

Therefore, we have:

Our objective function is then:

To minimize such an objection function, we should then use Lagrange

Multiplier.

Classifying non-linear data

What about data points are not linearly separable?

Non-linear separate.

SVM has a technique called the kernel trick. These are functions that take low

dimensional input space and transform it into a higher-dimensional space, i.e.,

it converts not separable problem to separable problem. It is mostly useful in

non-linear separation problems. This is shown as follows:

Mapping to a Higher Dimension

MODULE DIAGRAM

GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED OUTPUT

input : data

output : getting accuracy

Some Frequently Used Kernels

 Deploy

Flask (web framework)

Flask is a micro web framework written in Python.

It is classified as a micro-framework because it does not require particular tools

or libraries.

It has no database abstraction layer, form validation, or any other components

where pre-existing third-party libraries provide common functions.
However, Flask supports extensions that can add application features as if they
were implemented in Flask itself.

Extensions exist for object-relational mappers, form validation, upload

handling, various open authentication technologies and several common
framework related tools.

Flask was created by Armin Ronacher of Pocoo, an international group of

Python enthusiasts formed in 2004. According to Ronacher, the idea was
originally an April Fool's joke that was popular enough to make into a serious
application. The name is a play on the earlier Bottle framework.

When Ronacher and Georg Brand created a bulletin board system written in
Python, the Pocoo projects Werkzeug and Jinja were developed.

In April 2016, the Pocoo team was disbanded and development of Flask and
related libraries passed to the newly formed Pallets project.

Flask has become popular among Python enthusiasts. As of October 2020, it has
second most stars on GitHub among Python web-development frameworks,
only slightly behind Django, and was voted the most popular web framework in
the Python Developers Survey 2018.

The micro-framework Flask is part of the Pallets Projects, and based on several
others of them.

Flask is based on Werkzeug, Jinja2 and inspired by Sinatra Ruby framework,

available under BSD licence. It was developed at pocoo by Armin Ronacher.
Although Flask is rather young compared to most Python frameworks, it holds a
great promise and has already gained popularity among Python web developers.
Let‘s take a closer look into Flask, so-called ―micro‖ framework for Python.
MODULE DIAGRAM

GIVEN INPUT EXPECTED OUTPUT

input : data values

output : predicting output

FEATURES:

Flask was designed to be easy to use and extend. The idea behind Flask
is to build a solid foundation for web applications of different complexity. From
then on you are free to plug in any extensions you think you need. Also you
are free to build your own modules. Flask is great for all kinds of projects. It's
especially good for prototyping. Flask depends on two external libraries: the
Jinja2 template engine and the Werkzeug WSGI toolkit.
 Still the question remains why use Flask as your web application
framework if we have immensely powerful Django, Pyramid, and don‘t forget
web mega-framework Turbo-gears? Those are supreme Python web frameworks
BUT out-of-the-box Flask is pretty impressive too with its:

 Built-In Development server and Fast debugger

 integrated support for unit testing
 RESTful request dispatching
 Uses Jinja2 Templating
 support for secure cookies (Client Side Sessions)
 Unicode based
 Extensive Documentation
 Google App Engine Compatibility
 Extensions available to enhance features desired

Plus Flask gives you so much more CONTROL on the development

stage of your project. It follows the principles of minimalism and let you
decide how you will build your application.

 Flask has a lightweight and modular design, so it easy to transform it to the

web framework you need with a few extensions without weighing it down
 ORM-agnostic: you can plug in your favourite ORM e.g. SQLAlchemy.
 Basic foundation API is nicely shaped and coherent.
 Flask documentation is comprehensive, full of examples and well structured.
You can even try out some sample application to really get a feel of Flask.
 It is super easy to deploy Flask in production (Flask is 100% WSGI 1.0
compliant‖)
 HTTP request handling functionality
 High Flexibility
The configuration is even more flexible than that of Django, giving you
plenty of solution for every production need.

To sum up, Flask is one of the most polished and feature-rich micro frameworks
available. Still young, Flask has a thriving community, first-class extensions,
and an elegant API. Flask comes with all the benefits of fast templates, strong
WSGI features, thorough unit testability at the web application and library
level, extensive documentation. So next time you are starting a new project
where you need some good features and a vast number of extensions, definitely
check out Flask

Flask is an API of Python that allows us to build up web-applications. It

was developed by Armin Ronacher. Flask's framework is more explicit than
Django framework and is also easier to learn because it has less base code to
implement a simple web-Application

Flask is a micro web framework written in Python. It is classified as a

micro-framework because it does not require particular tools or libraries. It has
no database abstraction layer, form validation, or any other components where
pre-existing third-party libraries provide common functions.

Overview of Python Flask Framework Web apps are developed to

generate content based on retrieved data that changes based on a user‘s
interaction with the site. The server is responsible for querying, retrieving, and
updating data. This makes web applications to be slower and more complicated
to deploy than static websites for simple applications.
 Flask is an excellent web development framework for REST API
creation. It is built on top of Python which makes it powerful to use all the
python features.

Flask is used for the backend, but it makes use of a templating language
called Jinja2 which is used to create HTML, XML or other markup formats that
are returned to the user via an HTTP request.

Django is considered to be more popular because it provides many out of

box features and reduces time to build complex applications. Flask is a good
start if you are getting into web development. Flask is a simple, un-opinionated
framework; it doesn't decide what your application should look like developers
do.

Flask is a web framework. This means flask provides you with tools,
libraries and technologies that allow you to build a web application. This web
application can be some web pages, a blog, a wiki or go as big as a web-based
calendar application or a commercial website.

Advantages of Flask:

 Higher compatibility with latest technologies.

 Technical experimentation.
 Easier to use for simple cases.
 Codebase size is relatively smaller.
 High scalability for simple applications.
 Easy to build a quick prototype.
 Routing URL is easy.
 Easy to develop and maintain applications.
 Framework Flask is a web framework from Python language. Flask
provides a library and a collection of codes that can be used to build websites,
without the need to do everything from scratch. But Framework flask still
doesn't use the Model View Controller (MVC) method.

Flask-RESTful is an extension for Flask that provides additional support

for building REST APIs. You will never be disappointed with the time it takes
to develop an API. Flask-Restful is a lightweight abstraction that works with the
existing ORM/libraries. Flask-RESTful encourages best practices with minimal
setup.

Flask Restful is an extension for Flask that adds support for building
REST APIs in Python using Flask as the back-end. It encourages best practices
and is very easy to set up. Flask restful is very easy to pick up if you're already
familiar with flask.

Flask is a web framework for Python, meaning that it provides

functionality for building web applications, including managing HTTP requests
and rendering templates and also we can add to this application to create our
API.

Start Using an API

1. Most APIs require an API key. ...

2. The easiest way to start using an API is by finding an HTTP client online,
like REST-Client, Postman, or Paw.
3. The next best way to pull data from an API is by building a URL from
existing API documentation.

The flask object implements a WSGI application and acts as the central
object. It is passed the name of the module or package of the application. Once
it is created it will act as a central registry for the view functions, the URL rules,
template configuration and much more.

The name of the package is used to resolve resources from inside the
package or the folder the module is contained in depending on if the package
parameter resolves to an actual python package (a folder with an __init__.py
file inside) or a standard module (just a .py file).

For more information about resource loading, see open resource().

Usually you create a Flask instance in your main module or in the

__init__.py file of your package.

Parameters

 rule (str) – The URL rule string.

 endpoint (Optional[str]) – The endpoint name to associate with the rule
and view function. Used when routing and building URLs. Defaults to
view_func.__name__.
 view_func (Optional[Callable]) – The view function to associate with
the endpoint name.
 provide_automatic_options (Optional[bool]) – Add the OPTIONS
method and respond to OPTIONS requests automatically.
 options (Any) – Extra options passed to the Rule object.

Return type -- None

After_Request(f)

Register a function to run after each request to this object.

The function is called with the response object, and must return a
response object. This allows the functions to modify or replace the
response before it is sent.

If a function raises an exception, any remaining after_request

functions will not be called. Therefore, this should not be used for actions
that must execute, such as to close resources. Use teardown_request() for
that.

Parameters:

f (Callable[[Response], Response])

Return type

Callable[[Response], Response]

after_request_funcs: t.Dict[AppOrBlueprintKey,

t.List[AfterRequestCallable]]
 A data structure of functions to call at the end of each request, in
the format {scope: [functions]}. The scope key is the name of a blueprint
the functions are active for, or None for all requests.

To register a function, use the after_request() decorator.

This data structure is internal. It should not be modified directly and

its format may change at any time.

app_context()

Create an AppContext. Use as a with block to push the context,

which will make current_app point at this application.

An application context is automatically pushed by RequestContext.push()

when handling a request, and when running a CLI command. Use this to
manually create a context outside of these situations.

With app.app_context():

Init_db()

24.HTML Introduction

HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It is used to design web pages
using a markup language. HTML is the combination of Hypertext and Markup
language. Hypertext defines the link between the web pages. A markup language is
used to define the text document within tag which defines the structure of web pages.
This language is used to annotate (make notes for the computer) text so that a machine
can understand it and manipulate text accordingly. Most markup languages (e.g.
HTML) are human-readable. The language uses tags to define what manipulation has
to be done on the text.

Basic Construction of an HTML Page

These tags should be placed underneath each other at the top of every HTML page
that you create.

<!DOCTYPE html> — This tag specifies the language you will write on the page.
In this case, the language is HTML 5.

<html> — This tag signals that from here on we are going to write in HTML code.

<head> — This is where all the metadata for the page goes — stuff mostly meant
for search engines and other computer programs.

<body> — This is where the content of the page goes.

Further Tags
Inside the <head> tag, there is one tag that is always included: <title>, but there
are others that are just as important:

<title>

This is where we insert the page name as it will appear at the top of the
browser window or tab.

<meta>

This is where information about the document is stored: character encoding,

name (page context), description.

Head Tag
<head>

<title>My First Webpage</title>

<meta charset="UTF-8">

<meta name="description" content="This field contains information about your page.

It is usually around two sentences long.">.

<meta name="author" content="Conor Sheils">

</header>

Adding Content
Next, we will make <body> tag.
The HTML <body> is where we add the content which is designed for viewing by
human eyes.

This includes text, images, tables, forms and everything else that we see on the
internet each day.

Add HTML Headings To Web Page

In HTML, headings are written in the following elements:

 <h1>
o <h2>
 <h3>
 <h4>
 <h5>
 <h6>

As you might have guessed <h1> and <h2> should be used for the most important
titles, while the remaining tags should be used for sub-headings and less important
text.

Search engine bots use this order when deciphering which information is most
important on a page.

Creating Your Heading

Let‘s try it out. On a new line in the HTML editor, type:

<h1>Welcome to My Page</h1>

And hit save. We will save this file as ―index.html‖ in a new folder called ―my
webpage.‖

The Moment of Truth: Click the newly saved file and your first ever web page
should open in your default browser. It may not be pretty it‘s yours… all yours. *Evil
laugh*
 Element Meaning Purpose

<b> Bold Highlight important information

<strong> Strong Similarly to bold, to highlight key text

<i> Italic To denote text

<em> Emphasised Text Usually used as image captions

<mark> Marked Text Highlight the background of the text

<small> Small Text To shrink the text

<strike> Striked Out Text To place a horizontal line across the text

<u> Underlined Text Used for links or text highlights

<ins> Inserted Text Displayed with an underline to show an inserted text

<sup> Superscript Text Another typographical presentation style

Add Text In HTML

Adding text to our HTML page is simple using an element opened with the tag <p>
which creates a new paragraph. We place all of our regular text inside the element
<p>.
When we write text in HTML, we also have a number of other elements we can use to
control the text or make it appear in a certain way.

Add Links In HTML

As you may have noticed, the internet is made up of lots of links.

Almost everything you click on while surfing the web is a link takes you to another
page within the website you are visiting or to an external site.

Links are included in an attribute opened by the <a> tag. This element is the first that
we‘ve met which uses an attribute and so it looks different to previously mentioned
tags.

<a href="http://www.google.com">Google</a>

Image Tag

In today‘s modern digital world, images are everything. The <img> tag has
everything you need to display images on your site. Much like the <a> anchor
element, <img> also contains an attribute.

The attribute features information for your computer regarding the source, height,
width and alt text of the image

<img src="yourimage.jpg" alt="Describe the image" height="X" width="X">

CSS

CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets. It is the language for describing the
presentation of Web pages, including colours, layout, and fonts, thus making our
web pages presentable to the users.CSS is designed to make style sheets for the
web. It is independent of HTML and can be used with any XML-based markup
language. Now let‘s try to break the acronym:

 Cascading: Falling of Styles

 Style: Adding designs/Styling our HTML tags
 Sheets: Writing our style in different documents

CSS Syntax

Selector {

Property 1 : value;

Property 2 : value;

Property 3 : value;

For example:

h1

Color: red;

Text-align: center;

#unique

color: green;
 }

 Selector: selects the element you want to target

 Always remains the same whether we apply internal or external styling
 There are few basic selectors like tags, id‘s, and classes
 All forms this key-value pair
 Keys: properties(attributes) like color, font-size, background, width,
height,etc
 Value: values associated with these properties

CSS Comment

 Comments don‘t render on the browser

 Helps to understand our code better and makes it readable.
 Helps to debug our code
 Two ways to comment:
o Single line

CSS How-To

 There are 3 ways to write CSS in our HTML file.

o Inline CSS
o Internal CSS
o External CSS

 Priority order
o Inline > Internal > External

Inline CSS

 Before CSS this was the only way to apply styles

  Not an efficient way to write as it has a lot of redundancy
 Self-contained
 Uniquely applied on each element
 The idea of separation of concerns was lost
 Example:

<h3 style=” color:red”> Have a great day </h3>

<p style =” color: green”> I did this , I did that </p>

Internal CSS

 With the help of style tag, we can apply styles within the HTML file
 Redundancy is removed
 But the idea of separation of concerns still lost
 Uniquely applied on a single document
 Example:

< style>

h1{

color:red;

</style>

<h3> Have a great day </h3>

External CSS

 With the help of <link> tag in the head tag, we can apply styles
  Reference is added
 File saved with .css extension
 Redundancy is removed
 The idea of separation of concerns is maintained
 Uniquely applied to each document
 Example:

<head>

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="name of the Css file">

</head>

h1{

color:red; //.css file

CSS Selectors

 The selector is used to target elements and apply CSS

 Three simple selectors
o Element Selector
o Id Selector
o Class Selector

 Priority of Selectors

CSS Colors

 There are different colouring schemes in CSS

 RGB-This starts with RGB and takes 3 parameter
  HEX-Hex code starts with # and comprises of 6 numbers which are
further divided into 3 sets
 RGBA-This starts with RGB and takes 4 parameter

CSS Background

 There are different ways by which CSS can have an effect on HTML
elements
 Few of them are as follows:
o Color – used to set the color of the background
o Repeat – used to determine if the image has to repeat or not and
if it is repeating then how it should do that
o Image – used to set an image as the background
o Position – used to determine the position of the image
o Attachment – It basically helps in controlling the mechanism of
scrolling

CSS BoxModel

 Every element in CSS can be represented using the BOX model

 It allows us to add a border and define space between the content
 It helps the developer to develop and manipulate the elements
 It consists of 4 edges
o Content edge – It comprises of the actual content
o Padding edge – It lies in between content and border edge
o Border edge – Padding is followed by the border edge
o Margin edge – It is an outside border and controls the margin
of the element
26. Coding

MODEL 1 .Data validation and pre-processing

#import package

import pandas as pd

import numpy as ny

#read dataset
data = pd.read_csv('water.csv')

# view head

data.head()

#view tail

data.tail()

# shape of the project

data.shape

# size ofthe data

data.size

#columns

data.columns

data.isnull()

data.isnull().sum()

data.dropna()

# information about dataset

data.info()

data.duplicated()

data.duplicated().sum()

# describe

data.describe()

data['arsenic'].nunique()

data['barium'].nunique()

data["uranium"].nunique()
# check the unique values

data["aluminium"].nunique()

data["viruses"].nunique()

data["mercury"].nunique()

data["silver"].unique()

data["mercury"].unique()

data["arsenic"].unique()

data["uranium"].unique()

data["chloramine"].unique()

data["aluminium"].unique()

data.head()

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["aluminium"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["aluminium"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["aluminium"].max())

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["chloramine"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["chloramine"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["chloramine"].max())

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["copper"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["copper"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["copper"].max())

 In [ ]:

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["flouride"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["flouride"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["flouride"].max())

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["lead"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["lead"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["lead"].max())

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["nitrates"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["nitrates"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["nitrates"].max())

#min max values

print("minimum values of aluminium :", data["radium"].min())

print("mean values of alumimum :",data["radium"].mean())

print("maximum values of aluminium :", data["radium"].max())

data.corr()

data.corr().describe()

data["mercury"].value_counts()

pd.Categorical(data["uranium"]).describe()

data.info()

data.columns
from sklearn.preprocessing import LabelEncoder

le = LabelEncoder()

var_mod = (['aluminium', 'ammonia', 'arsenic', 'barium', 'cadmium',

'chloramine',

'chromium', 'copper', 'flouride', 'bacteria', 'viruses', 'lead',

'nitrates', 'nitrites', 'mercury', 'perchlorate', 'radium',

'selenium',

'silver', 'uranium', 'is_safe'])

for i in var_mod:

data[i] = le.fit_transform(data[i]). astype(int)

data.head()

Model-2:

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import seaborn as sns

import warnings

warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

data = pd.read_csv("water.csv")

data.head()

data["is_safe"].unique()

data["is_safe"].unique()
data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!']

data = data.drop(data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!'].index)

data["is_safe"].unique()

data["is_safe"] = data["is_safe"].astype(float)

data.info()

data.columns

data.isnull().sum()

data =data.dropna()

plt.figure(figsize= (10,8))

sns.heatmap(data.isnull())

plt.show()

plt.figure(figsize=(9,6))

sns.scatterplot(x=data['aluminium'],y=data["barium"])

plt.show()

plt.figure(figsize = (14,8))

sns.stripplot(x = data["cadmium"], y = data["chromium"])

data.columns

plt.figure(figsize= (12,8))

plt.subplot(2,2,1)

data["cadmium"].plot(kind='density')

plt.subplot(2,2,2)

data["copper"].plot(kind='density')

plt.subplot(2,2,3)
data["viruses"].plot(kind='density')

plt.subplot(2,2,4)

data["chromium"].plot(kind='density')

plt.show()

data.hist(figsize=(20,35),layout =(19,3) )

plt.show()

plt.figure(figsize=(12,4))

plt.subplot(1,2,1)

plt.title("mercury")

sns.boxplot(data["mercury"])

plt.subplot(1,2,2)

plt.title("perchlorate")

sns.boxplot(data["perchlorate"])

plt.show()

#Propagation by variable

def PropByVar(data, variable):

dataframe_pie = data[variable].value_counts()

ax = dataframe_pie.plot.pie(figsize=(10,10), autopct='%1.2f%%',
fontsize = 12)

ax.set_title(variable + ' \n', fontsize = 15)

return np.round(dataframe_pie/data.shape[0]*100,2)

PropByVar(data, 'is_safe')
plt.figure(figsize=(15,12))

sns.heatmap(data.corr(), annot =True)

plt.show()

data.columns

from sklearn.preprocessing import LabelEncoder

le = LabelEncoder()

var = ['aluminium', 'ammonia', 'arsenic', 'barium', 'cadmium',

'chloramine',

'chromium', 'copper', 'flouride', 'bacteria', 'viruses', 'lead',

'nitrates', 'nitrites', 'mercury', 'perchlorate', 'radium',

'selenium',

'silver', 'uranium', 'is_safe']

for i in var:

data[i] = le.fit_transform(data[i])

data.head()

Module 3 : Performance measurements of Logistic regression

#import library packages

import pandas as p

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import seaborn as s

import numpy as n
#Load given dataset

data = p.read_csv("water.csv")

import warnings

warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

data.head(5)

data.tail(5)

data.isnull().sum()

data = data.dropna()

data.shape

data.duplicated().sum()

data.info()

data["is_safe"].unique()

data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!']

data = data.drop(data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!'].index)

data["is_safe"].unique()

data.describe()

data.corr()

df = data

df.columns

#According to the cross-validated MCC scores, the random forest is the

best-performing model, so now let's evaluate its performance on the test
set.
from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report,
matthews_corrcoef, cohen_kappa_score, accuracy_score,
average_precision_score, roc_auc_score

X = data.drop(labels='is_safe', axis=1)

#Response variable

y = data.loc[:,'is_safe']

#We'll use a test size of 30%. We also stratify the split on the response
variable, which is very important to do because there are so few fraudulent
transactions.

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3,

random_state=0, stratify=y)

Logistic Regression :

from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, confusion_matrix

from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression

from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score

logR= LogisticRegression()

logR.fit(X_train,y_train)

predictLR = logR.predict(X_test)

print("")

print('Classification report of Logistic Regression Results:')

print("")

print(classification_report(y_test,predictLR))

x = (accuracy_score(y_test,predictLR)*100)

print('Accuracy result of Logisticregression is:', x)

print("")

cm2=confusion_matrix(y_test,predictLR)

print('Confusion Matrix result of Logistic Regression is:\n',cm2)

print("")

sensitivity2 = cm2[0,0]/(cm2[0,0]+cm2[0,1])

print('Sensitivity : ', sensitivity2 )

print("")

specificity2 = cm2[1,1]/(cm2[1,0]+cm2[1,1])

print('Specificity : ', specificity2)

print("")

accuracy = cross_val_score(logR, X, y, scoring='accuracy')

print('Cross validation test results of accuracy:')

print(accuracy)

#get the mean of each fold

print("")
print("Accuracy result of Logistic Regression is:",accuracy.mean() * 100)

LR=accuracy.mean() * 100

def graph():

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

data=[LR]

alg="Logistic Regression"

plt.figure(figsize=(5,5))

b=plt.bar(alg,data,color=("b"))

plt.title("Accuracy comparison Water Qualaity",fontsize=15)

plt.legend(b,data,fontsize=9)

graph()

TN = cm2[1][0]

FN = cm2[0][0]

TP = cm2[1][1]

FP = cm2[0][1]
print("True Positive :",TP)

print("True Negative :",TN)

print("False Positive :",FP)

print("False Negative :",FN)

print("")

TPR = TP/(TP+FN)

TNR = TN/(TN+FP)

FPR = FP/(FP+TN)

FNR = FN/(TP+FN)

print("True Positive Rate :",TPR)

print("True Negative Rate :",TNR)

print("False Positive Rate :",FPR)

print("False Negative Rate :",FNR)

print("")

PPV = TP/(TP+FP)

NPV = TN/(TN+FN)

print("Positive Predictive Value :",PPV)

print("Negative predictive value :",NPV)

cm2=confusion_matrix(y_test, predictLR)

print('Confusion matrix-LR:')

print(cm2)
s.heatmap(cm2/n.sum(cm2), annot=True, cmap = 'Blues', annot_kws={"size":
16}, fmt='.2%',)

plt.show()

Module 4 : Performance measurements of DecisionTree:

#import library packages

import pandas as p

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import seaborn as s

import numpy as n

#Load given dataset

data = p.read_csv("water.csv")

import warnings

warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

data.head(5)

data.tail(5)

data.isnull().sum()

data = data.dropna()

data.shape

data.duplicated().sum()

data["is_safe"].unique()

data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!']

data = data.drop(data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!'].index)
data["is_safe"].unique()

data.info()

data.describe()

data.corr()

df = data

df.columns

#According to the cross-validated MCC scores, the random forest is the

best-performing model, so now let's evaluate its performance on the test
set.

from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report,

matthews_corrcoef, cohen_kappa_score, accuracy_score,
average_precision_score, roc_auc_score

X = data.drop(labels='is_safe', axis=1)

#Response variable

y = data.loc[:,'is_safe']

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3,

random_state=0, stratify=y)

DecisionTree:

from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, confusion_matrix

from sklearn.tree import DecisionTreeClassifier

from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score

DT=DecisionTreeClassifier()
DT.fit(X_train,y_train)

predictDT = DT.predict(X_test)

print("")

print('Classification report DecisionTree classifier Results:')

print("")

print(classification_report(y_test,predictDT))

print("")

x = (accuracy_score(y_test,predictDT)*100)

print('Accuracy result of DecisionTree is:', x)

print("")

cm2=confusion_matrix(y_test,predictDT)

print('Confusion Matrix result of DecissionTree Classifier is:\n',cm2)

print("")

sensitivity2 = cm2[0,0]/(cm2[0,0]+cm2[0,1])

print('Sensitivity : ', sensitivity2 )

print("")

specificity2 = cm2[1,1]/(cm2[1,0]+cm2[1,1])

print('Specificity : ', specificity2)

print("")

accuracy = cross_val_score(DT, X, y, scoring='accuracy')

print('Cross validation test results of accuracy:')

print(accuracy)

#get the mean of each fold

print("")

print("Accuracy result of DecisionTree Classifier is:",accuracy.mean() *

100)

dt=accuracy.mean() * 100

def graph():

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

data=[dt]

alg="Decision Tree"

plt.figure(figsize=(5,5))

b=plt.bar(alg,data,color=("b"))

plt.title("Accuracy comparison of Water Quality",fontsize=15)

plt.legend(b,data,fontsize=9)
graph()

TN = cm2[1][0]

FN = cm2[0][0]

TP = cm2[1][1]

FP = cm2[0][1]

print("True Positive :",TP)

print("True Negative :",TN)

print("False Positive :",FP)

print("False Negative :",FN)

print("")

TPR = TP/(TP+FN)

TNR = TN/(TN+FP)

FPR = FP/(FP+TN)

FNR = FN/(TP+FN)

print("True Positive Rate :",TPR)

print("True Negative Rate :",TNR)

print("False Positive Rate :",FPR)

print("False Negative Rate :",FNR)

print("")

PPV = TP/(TP+FP)
NPV = TN/(TN+FN)

print("Positive Predictive Value :",PPV)

print("Negative predictive value :",NPV)

cm2=confusion_matrix(y_test, predictDT)

print('Confusion matrix-DT:')

print(cm2)

s.heatmap(cm2/n.sum(cm2), annot=True, cmap = 'Blues', annot_kws={"size":

16}, fmt='.2%',)

plt.show()

Module 5 : Performance measurements of Random Forest

algorithms

#import library packages

import pandas as p

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import seaborn as s

import numpy as n

#Load given dataset

data = p.read_csv("water.csv")

import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

data.head(5)

data.tail(5)

data.isnull().sum()

data = data.dropna()

data.shape

data.duplicated().sum()

data["is_safe"].unique()

data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!']

data = data.drop(data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!'].index)

data["is_safe"].unique()

data.info()

data.describe()

data.corr()

df = data

df.columns

#According to the cross-validated MCC scores, the random forest is the

best-performing model, so now let's evaluate its performance on the test
set.

from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report,

matthews_corrcoef, cohen_kappa_score, accuracy_score,
average_precision_score, roc_auc_score

X = data.drop(labels='is_safe', axis=1)

#Response variable
y = data.loc[:,'is_safe']

#We'll use a test size of 30%. We also stratify the split on the response
variable, which is very important to do because there are so few fraudulent
transactions.

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3,

random_state=0, stratify=y)

Random Forest:

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier

from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, confusion_matrix

from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score

rfc = RandomForestClassifier()

rfc.fit(X_train,y_train)

predictR = rfc.predict(X_test)

print("")

print('Classification report of Random Forest Results:')

print("")

print(classification_report(y_test,predictR))

x = (accuracy_score(y_test,predictR)*100)
print('Accuracy result of Random Forest is:', x)

print("")

cm1=confusion_matrix(y_test,predictR)

print('Confusion Matrix result of Random Forest is:\n',cm1)

print("")

sensitivity1 = cm1[0,0]/(cm1[0,0]+cm1[0,1])

print('Sensitivity : ', sensitivity1 )

print("")

specificity1 = cm1[1,1]/(cm1[1,0]+cm1[1,1])

print('Specificity : ', specificity1)

print("")

accuracy = cross_val_score(rfc, X, y, scoring='accuracy')

print('Cross validation test results of accuracy:')

print(accuracy)

#get the mean of each fold

print("")

print("Accuracy result of Random Forest is:",accuracy.mean() * 100)

RFC=accuracy.mean() * 100

def graph():
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

data=[RFC]

alg="Random orest"

plt.figure(figsize=(5,5))

b=plt.bar(alg,data,color=("b"))

plt.title("Accuracy comparison of Water Quality")

plt.legend(b,data,fontsize=9)

graph()

TN = cm1[0][1]

FN = cm1[1][1]

TP = cm1[0][0]

FP = cm1[1][0]

print("True Positive :",TP)

print("True Negative :",TN)

print("False Positive :",FP)

print("False Negative :",FN)

print("")

TPR = TP/(TP+FN)

TNR = TN/(TN+FP)
FPR = FP/(FP+TN)

FNR = FN/(TP+FN)

print("True Positive Rate :",TPR)

print("True Negative Rate :",TNR)

print("False Positive Rate :",FPR)

print("False Negative Rate :",FNR)

print("")

PPV = TP/(TP+FP)

NPV = TN/(TN+FN)

print("Positive Predictive Value :",PPV)

print("Negative predictive value :",NPV)

cm2=confusion_matrix( predictR,y_test)

print('Confusion matrix-RF:')

print(cm2)

s.heatmap(cm2/n.sum(cm2), annot=True, cmap = 'Blues', annot_kws={"size":

16},fmt='.2%')

plt.show()
Module 6 : Performance measurements of SVM

#import library packages

import pandas as p

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import seaborn as sns

import numpy as n

#Load given dataset

data = p.read_csv("water.csv")

import warnings

warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

data.head(5)

data.isnull().sum()

data = data.dropna()

data.duplicated().sum()

data["is_safe"].unique()

data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!']

data = data.drop(data[data["is_safe"]=='#NUM!'].index)

data["is_safe"].unique()

data.info()

df = data

df.columns
#According to the cross-validated MCC scores, the random forest is the
best-performing model, so now let's evaluate its performance on the test
set.

from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix, classification_report,

matthews_corrcoef, cohen_kappa_score, accuracy_score,
average_precision_score, roc_auc_score

X = data.drop(labels='is_safe', axis=1)

#Response variable

y = data.loc[:,'is_safe']

#We'll use a test size of 30%. We also stratify the split on the response
variable, which is very important to do because there are so few fraudulent
transactions.

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3,

random_state=0, stratify=y)

svc

from sklearn.svm import SVC

from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, confusion_matrix

from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score

s = SVC()

s.fit(X_train,y_train)
predicts = s.predict(X_test)

print("")

print('Classification report of Support Vector Machines Results:')

print("")

print(classification_report(y_test,predicts))

x = (accuracy_score(y_test,predicts)*100)

print('Accuracy result of Support Vector Machines is:', x)

print("")

cm2=confusion_matrix(y_test,predicts)

print('Confusion Matrix result of Support Vector Machines is:\n',cm2)

print("")

sensitivity1 = cm2[0,0]/(cm2[0,0]+cm2[0,1])

print('Sensitivity : ', sensitivity1 )

print("")

specificity1 = cm2[1,1]/(cm2[1,0]+cm2[1,1])

print('Specificity : ', specificity1)

print("")

accuracy = cross_val_score(s,X, y, scoring='accuracy')

print('Cross validation test results of accuracy:')

print(accuracy)

#get the mean of each fold

print("")

print("Accuracy result of Support Vector Machine is:",accuracy.mean() *

100)

S=accuracy.mean() * 100

def graph():

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

data=[S]

alg="Support Vector Machine"

plt.figure(figsize=(5,5))

b=plt.bar(alg,data,color=("b"))

plt.title("Accuracy comparison of Water Quality")

plt.legend(b,data,fontsize=9)

graph()

TN = cm2[1][0]

FN = cm2[0][0]

TP = cm2[1][1]

FP = cm2[0][1]

print("True Positive :",TP)

print("True Negative :",TN)

print("False Positive :",FP)

print("False Negative :",FN)

print("")

TPR = TP/(TP+FN)

TNR = TN/(TN+FP)

FPR = FP/(FP+TN)

FNR = FN/(TP+FN)

print("True Positive Rate :",TPR)

print("True Negative Rate :",TNR)

print("False Positive Rate :",FPR)

print("False Negative Rate :",FNR)

print("")

PPV = TP/(TP+FP)

NPV = TN/(TN+FN)

print("Positive Predictive Value :",PPV)

print("Negative predictive value :",NPV)

cm2=confusion_matrix(y_test, predicts)

print('Confusion matrix-SVM:')

print(cm2)
sns.heatmap(cm2/n.sum(cm2), annot=True, cmap = 'Blues', annot_kws={"size":
16}, fmt='.2%',)

plt.show()

Flask Deploy:

import numpy as np

from flask import Flask, request, jsonify, render_template

import pickle

import joblib

app = Flask(__name__)

model = joblib.load('dt.pkl')

@app.route('/')

def home():

return render_template('index.html')

@app.route('/predict',methods=['POST'])

def predict():
 '''

For rendering results on HTML GUI

'''

int_features = [(x) for x in request.form.values()]

final_features = [np.array(int_features)]

print(final_features)

prediction = model.predict(final_features)

output = prediction[0]

print(output)

if output == '0':

output ='water is not safe'

elif output =='1':

output = 'Water is safe'

return render_template('index.html', prediction_text='WATER QUALITY {}'.format(output))

if __name__ == "__main__":

app.run(host="localhost", port=8012)
OUTPUT SCRRENSHOT
27. Conclusion

The analytical process started from data cleaning and processing, missing
value, exploratory analysis and finally model building and evaluation. The best
accuracy on public test set is higher accuracy score is will be found out. This
application can help to find the Water Quality status.

28. Future Work

 Water Quality prediction with live sensor (IOT) AI model.

 To automate this process by show the prediction result in web application or
desktop application.
 To optimize the work to implement in Artificial Intelligence environment.
THE END .