Week 2

Doyle
Types of Liberalism: The text distinguishes between laissez-faire (conservative)
liberalism, which limits state intervention, and social welfare (liberal) liberalism,
which expands the state's role in promoting freedom.

· Liberal Principles in Foreign Policy:

 · Liberal international theory is based on the idea that states, like individuals, have a right to be free

from foreign intervention.

 Since liberal states represent morally autonomous citizens, they also have the right to political

independence.

 Mutual respect for these rights fosters cooperation and peaceful relations among liberal states.

· Economic and Social Interdependence:

 · Private international ties, such as trade and education, reinforce peaceful relations.

 Economic exchanges create mutual benefits that strengthen diplomatic ties and discourage war.

· The Liberal Peace Theory:

 · Empirical evidence suggests that constitutionally secure liberal states have not fought wars against

one another.

 While conflicts and rivalries exist, liberal states resolve disputes diplomatically rather than through

war.

 Examples:

o Britain and the U.S. nearly went to war during the American Civil War but ultimately did not.

o Despite colonial rivalries, Britain and France resolved the Fashoda Crisis (1898) without war.

o Italy, despite being allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary before WWI, joined Britain

and France instead of fighting against fellow liberal states.

· Liberal States Aligning in Global Conflicts:

  · When forced to choose sides in major conflicts, liberal states tend to align with one another.

 Example: In both World Wars, liberal states like the U.S., Britain, and France ended up on the same

side, opposing more authoritarian states.

· Historical Development of Liberal Peace:

 · Medieval Europe was characterized by continuous warfare.

 As liberal regimes emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries, they gradually formed a "pacific union,"

showing a consistent pattern of peaceful relations.

Hobbes and the State of War:

 Thomas Hobbes argued that international anarchy leads to constant fear, competition, and the

temptation for preventive war (attacking first to avoid being attacked).

 The international system is not always in open conflict, but it exists in a perpetual "state of war",

where war is always a possibility.

Hobbesian View on Prudence and International Relations

Hobbes (a 17th-century philosopher) believed that in the state of nature—a world without a strong
authority—people live in constant fear because there is no one to protect them. This leads to a "war of all
against all," where everyone fights to survive.

To escape this chaos, Hobbes argued that people create a sovereign (a strong government or ruler) to
provide security and order. This sovereign should act prudently (carefully) to ensure peace and protect its
people.

How This Applies to International Relations

Hobbes’ ideas were later applied to international relations:

1. Countries are like people in the state of nature—they live in an anarchic world without a global

authority to enforce peace.

2. Because there is no world government, countries fear each other—they arm themselves and act

aggressively to protect their interests.

3. Prudence (careful strategy) is necessary—a smart leader avoids unnecessary wars but also stays

strong to prevent being attacked.

 4. But prudence is not a guarantee of peace—because other countries are also acting out of fear,

they might attack first to protect themselves (this is called the security dilemma).

Kant’s Explanation of Liberal Peace:

 Kant proposed that peace among liberal states arises from three "definitive articles":

1. Republican Constitutions: Liberal states ensure individual rights and representative

government, making war decisions more cautious.

2. Pacific Union: A growing alliance of liberal republics fosters mutual peace without

necessarily forming a single world state.

3. Cosmopolitan Law: Encouraging international trade and interaction under principles of

"universal hospitality" (allowing foreign visitors but not requiring citizenship or settlement).

Realist Theory

1. How Should a Theory of International Politics Be Judged?

 A theory of international politics should not be based on abstract ideas (not a priori) but rather on

real-world evidence (empirical) and practical outcomes (pragmatic).

 This means that the theory should not be judged by how ideal or morally good it sounds, but by

whether it accurately describes and explains the real world.

 The theory must pass two tests:

1. Empirical Test – Are the facts true? Do real-world events support the theory?

2. Logical Test – Do the conclusions of the theory logically follow from its initial ideas?

2. The Main Issue: Two Competing Views on Politics

The text then introduces a debate between two schools of thought in political theory.

First School: Idealism (Liberalism)

 Belief: A rational and moral political order can be created based on universal principles.

 Assumption about human nature: Humans are essentially good and can be improved.
  Cause of problems: The world is imperfect because people and institutions fail to apply reason and

moral principles correctly.

 Solution: Education, reform, and fixing political and social institutions can lead to peace and order.

 Main idea: If we work to improve people and institutions, a just and peaceful world is possible.

Second School: Realism

 Belief: Politics is shaped by forces inherent in human nature—meaning, human nature is naturally

driven by self-interest, power, and competition.

 Assumption about human nature: People are not infinitely good or perfectible; they have selfish

instincts that influence politics.

 Cause of problems: The world is imperfect not because of bad institutions but because of

unchangeable human nature.

 Solution: Instead of trying to eliminate power struggles, we must manage them to maintain

stability.

 Main idea: Politics is about balancing conflicting interests to prevent chaos, not about creating a

perfect world.

Politics is Governed by Objective Laws Based on Human Nature

 Just like society follows certain natural laws, politics also follows objective laws (rules that do not

change based on opinion).

 If we want to improve society, we first need to understand these laws instead of just hoping for the

best.

 These laws are not influenced by personal preferences—whether we like them or not, they exist.

 Realism focuses on truth and objectivity rather than wishful thinking or emotions.

Key Idea: Politics follows fixed laws based on human nature, and we must understand them to make
rational decisions.

2. Human Nature Has Not Changed

  The roots of politics lie in human nature, which has remained the same since ancient times.

 Political ideas developed thousands of years ago (like the balance of power theory) are still relevant

today.

 Just because a theory is old does not mean it is wrong or outdated—it must be tested through reason

and experience.

 Ignoring past political knowledge is like calling something a "fashion" or "trend"—this is a

mistake because political truths are timeless.

Key Idea: Human nature has remained constant throughout history, so political theories based on human
nature do not become outdated.

3. Realism Distinguishes Between Facts and Opinions

 The goal of realism is to find out facts and give them meaning.

 It does this by looking at past political acts and analyzing their foreseeable consequences.

 Instead of focusing on what politicians say, realism focuses on what they actually do.

 By studying their actions, we can infer their real motives and objectives.

Key Idea: Realism focuses on actions rather than words, using historical analysis to predict political
behavior.

Understanding Political Realism in International

Politics
1. Facts Alone Are Not Enough—They Need Rational Interpretation

 Simply observing facts about foreign policy is not enough; we must analyze them with a rational

framework.

 This means considering different possible meanings of a political action.

 Example: When a political leader makes a decision, we should ask:

o What other choices did they have?

 o Why did they choose this specific action?

o What does their choice reveal about their motives?

 This rational hypothesis is tested against real-world facts, which makes understanding politics

possible.

Key Idea: Political realism does not just observe facts but also interprets them logically to understand
political motives.

2. The Concept of “Interest Defined in Terms of Power”

 Interest (self-interest) and power are central to politics.

 This concept helps explain why states act the way they do.

 Politics is separate from other fields like economics or ethics—it follows its own set of rules.

 Without understanding power, we cannot properly analyze politics.

 Realists assume that politicians think in terms of power and interest, and history supports this

assumption.

Key Idea: Politics revolves around power and self-interest, and understanding this is essential for analyzing
international relations.

3. The Role of Interest and Power in Foreign Policy

 Thinking in terms of power and interest allows us to predict political actions.

 When we analyze foreign policy, we assume:

o Leaders act based on power considerations rather than moral ideals.

o Political decisions are made rationally, not emotionally.

o By looking at past actions, we can predict future behavior.

 This approach helps explain why different political leaders from different countries often behave

in similar ways.
Key Idea: Political realism assumes that statesmen act rationally to protect their interests, allowing us to
predict political behavior.

1. Political Realism and the Gap Between Theory and Reality

 Political realism recognizes that foreign policy does not always match ideal theories.

 However, this does not mean the theory is wrong—it simply means it is a guideline, not a perfect

prediction.

 Example: The balance of power concept is often used in political realism, but in practice, achieving

perfect balance is rare.

Key Idea: Theories in political realism serve as approximations of reality, not exact predictions.

2. The Role of National Interest

 Political realism defines "interest" as power—but this meaning is not fixed and changes based on

time and place.

 Historical examples:

o Thucydides (Ancient Greece): “Identity of interests is the surest bond of unity.”

o Lord Salisbury (19th century Britain): “The only bond of union that endures among nations

is the absence of clashing interests.”

 George Washington’s insight: Human nature is governed by interest, and while public virtue

exists, self-interest is the dominant force in politics.

Max Weber’s Contribution:

 Interests (both material and ideal) shape actions more than abstract ideas.

 Ideas do matter, but they function like “switches” that guide the movement of deeper interests.

Key Idea: Political decisions are driven primarily by interests, not just ideals or moral principles.

3. The Role of Power in Political Realism

  Power is not just military strength—it includes all forms of control over people.

 Power can take many forms:

o Physical force (e.g., military power)

o Psychological control (e.g., propaganda)

o Institutional power (e.g., laws and government systems)

 Different political systems control power differently:

o Western democracies: Use moral and legal limits on power.

o Autocratic regimes: Use power for expansion and domination.

Key Idea: Power is a central concept in politics, and its nature changes depending on the political system.

4. The Permanence of Conflict and the Balance of Power

 Political realism assumes that conflict and instability are permanent in international relations.

 The balance of power is a key concept:

o It helps prevent one country from becoming too powerful.

o However, achieving a perfect balance is not always possible.

 Historical example:

o The United States successfully maintains internal stability despite having pluralistic

societies (many different ethnic, religious, and ideological groups).

o The international scene is different—while periods of peace exist, conflict is inevitable

over long periods.

Key Idea: The world is inherently unstable, and conflict is a permanent feature of international relations.

5. The Role of the Nation-State

  Political realists believe the nation-state is the most important actor in foreign policy.

 However, they also acknowledge that the nation-state system is a product of history and could

change in the future.

 Some scholars think nation-states will disappear and be replaced by larger political entities.

 Realists disagree—they believe political change happens gradually, shaped by historical and social

forces.

Key Idea: The nation-state is central to modern politics, but political realism acknowledges the possibility
of change.

6. The Importance of Prudence in Foreign Policy

 Political realism values practical decision-making over abstract theories.

 It recognizes that moral and legal obligations are important, but they must be balanced with

political necessities.

 A good foreign policy:

o Minimizes risks.

o Maximizes benefits.

o Takes historical lessons into account.

Key Idea: Political realism emphasizes pragmatism and historical awareness in decision-making.