Stereo Microscopes:multiple eyepiece for 3D vision.10x-40x,greater working distance.larger objects without slicing.Manufacturing,dissection, botanical.

Compound
Microscopes:single eyepiece,multiple objectives.samples must be prepared on slide.40x-1kx.(schools+medical)viewing cells.Inverted Microscopes:biological and metallurgical
types.living samples on flat stages.inspect metal surfaces for faults&fractures.Metallurgical Microscopes:opaque samples using reflected light.50x-500x.aerospace, auto
manufacturing, industries with metals.Polarizing Microscopes: contrast between structures and densities using light manipulation.geology, petrology,chemistry for viewing
birefringent materials.Digital Microscope:images smaller than wavelengths visible to the human eye.focusing,recording, manipulation of images used with computer monitors.
USB Microscope:macro lens+USB cable.no preparation.to200x. Pocket Microscope:25x-100x.field use & hand-held imaging. Electron Microscope: TEMs displaying images,1
nanometer across.nanotechnology, semiconductor analysis, for detailed observation.Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM):3D images in real-time. Probes surfaces for info.Acoustic
Microscope:faults, cracks, errors during manufacturing processes using high ultrasound.Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM)internal structures without staining or damaging
specimens. Confocal Microscope:lasers to scan surfaces.display images on screens.Simple Microscope:Antony van Leeuwenhoek.convex lens & specimen holding
mechanism.300x.objects appear upside-down and backwards. If a specimen were to move forward and right, it would appear to move backward and left.Cleaning:remove visible
dirt,dust,soils.with cloth,wipe,wash.Sanitizing:reduce bacteria amount.doesnt kill bacteria.Disinfecting:kill bacteria.used to stop infection/ spread.Sterilization:destroys all forms of
microbial life.heat,gas,radiation,filtration.Gram-positive produce exotoxins.susceptible to phenol disinfectants.blue-purple color of crystal violet because of thicker walls of
peptidoglycan.lack the periplasmic space between the cytoplasmic and outer membranes.cannot form spores.peptidoglycan forms about 90% of the cell wall.Gram-negative-thinner
walls of peptidoglycan.2 membranes. has periplasmic space between them.become red-pink. aerobic.harder to kill,more complex.Gram test-Smear bacteria sample across
slide-obtains small sample of bacteria to identify.Heat fix bacteria slide-prevents bacteria from being washed off.apply crystal violet stain to stain sample purple.apply iodine Binds
with crystal violet to make molecules bigger.wash with alcohol-dissolves capsule & other plasma membrane in bacterial cells; washes away crystal violet in gram negative
cells.Apply safranin-stains sample pink/red.Staphylococcus aureus:Gram-positive,facultative anaerobic,cocci,non-motile,non spore,0.5-1.5μm,skin and object
contact.catalase positive,symptoms(abdomen,skin pain,blister,boil,impetigo,rashes,redness,diarrhea,nausea, vomiting,chills,fever,abscess,
pus,swelling),treatment(cefazolin, nafcillin, oxacillin, vancomycin, daptomycin and linezolid.)coagulase positive(separate Staphylococcus species),novobiocin
sensitive(separate Staphylococcus saprophyticus),mannitol fermentation positive (to distinguish from Staphylococcus epidermidis),mec gene(bacterial
chromosome)part of the larger Staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec (SCCmec) region,encodes the protein penicillin-binding protein 2a,don’t bind to
beta-lactams,MRSAresistant to methicillin,nafcillin,oxacillin,and cephalosporins.grow in up to 10% salt,colonies are often golden or yellow,18 C and 40 C,α,β,δ,γ
hemolytic. Virulence factor:hemolysins,leukocidins,proteases,enterotoxins,exfoliative toxins,immune-modulatory factors.Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever(rickettsia
rickettsii):Gram negative,aerobic,pleomorphic,non-motile,non-spore,size:cocci (0.1 μm in diameter), bacilli (1–4 μm long), or threads (up to about 10 μm long) (tick is
vector,amplifier,reservoir),,symptoms(headache,chills,fever,joint pain,fatigue,weakness,rash,brain irritation,labored breathing,poor circulation;coma,and death),
treatment:doxycycline.virulence factor:surface proteins,lipopolysaccharide (LPS) cell wall,(probably)slime layer. Mycobacterium tuberculosis:Gram-positive,
obligate-aerobic,bacilli,non-motile,non-spore-forming,0.2–0.5 µm wide and 2–4 µm long,respiratory droplet,catalase-negative,coughing,hemoptysis,chest pain when breathing or
coughing,weight loss,fatigue,fever,night sweats,chills,loss of appetite,treatment:rifampin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol.intracellular bacteria.“Ghost Cell” phenomenon occurs
when Gram-stain is weakly positive.Key point:Resistance to several antibiotics,survive acidity or alkalinity,low oxygen situation, and intracellular survival(in
macrophage),virulence factor:secretion factors,cell surface components,enzymes involved in cellular metabolism, and transcriptional regulators.(toxin).Horizontal gene
transfer:three mechanisms-transformation,transduction,conjugation.most common is conjugationTransformation:picking up DNA from environment. Conjugation: bacterial cell
giving another bacterial cell genetic information directly.donor cell replicates part or all of its genetic material,then makes a tube between the two cells called a sex
pilus.conjugation ends and the recipient cell does not receive any genes that were not yet transferred.only bacterial cells with a fertility factor can be a donor
cell.Transduction:bacterial cell receiving bacterial genetic information from a virus. Malara(Plasmodium falciparum):vector:female Anopheles mosquito,introduce sporozoites into
blood,enter hepatocytes(liver cells),asexual reproduction,pre-erythrocytic liver-stage(liver schizonts last around 2 weeks),form motile merozoites released into blood,invade red
blood cells,merozoites replication serial cycle,ring,trophozoite,schizont stages,and releasing of new merozoites,rise in parasite numbers,produces high levels of blood-stage
parasites,change outer surface(bump) of Red Blood Cell,creating an adhesive phenotype,e.g. (sticky cell) causing RBC sequestration(in mid and small vessels),removing the
parasite from the circulation for nearly half of the asexual cycle.Sequestration leads to splenic parasite clearance avoidance,host cell endothelial damage,microvascular
obstruction.small amount of parasite in blood switch to sexual development,making morphologically distinct male and female gametocytes,get taken by another mosquito,than
male micro-gametocytes go through a process of ex-flagellation in midgut,fusing with female macro-gametes,form zygote,reach stage of ookinete,migrates through a thin
wall,matures into oocyst,producing and upon rupturing, releasing sporozoites,dispersed throughout mosquito’s body(salivary glands included),Gametocytes are hence of vital
importance to the transmission cycle of malaria.Treatment:chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine.symptoms:fever,chills,sweats,headaches,nausea and vomiting,body aches,general
malaise.Media culture fungi&bacteria.Liquid media,easily obtain many cells from pure culture.solid media,separating single colonies from mixed culture.Differential
media,separate different types of bacteria.Selective media, let specific type of microbe to grow.Define media(synthetic media),pure chemicals,all ingredients are
controlled,concentration controlled,culture microbe and animal cells.Complex media,nutrient rich,nutrients in unknown quantity,common microbes,non-fastidious.Enriched
media,fastidious organisms,extra nutrients.Anaerobic media anaerobic organisms.Simple media(basal media),laboratory diagnostic,non-fastidious organism,general
purpose.Peptones,water-soluble protein hydrolysates,with peptides,amino acids,inorganic salt,lipids,vitamins,and sugars.Media type:Blood
agar(BAP),differential,enriched,complex media,fastidious organisms,separate alpha-hemolysis,partial breakdown of blood cells(surrounding greenish halo),beta completely break
down(around is yellow),gamma doesn’t.Nutrients agar/medium,complex medium,all types of microbes,non-fastidious,not a derived media. MacConkey(MAC)
agar,selective,differential medium,gram negative only,differentiate lactose fermenters(pink),non lactose fermenters(transparent),non-fastidious.Phenylethyl alcohol agar
(PEA),selective medium,Gram positive organisms only, usually staphy organism,strepto is fastidious so not as well, interfere with with DNA synthesis,can’t pass though
gram-positive.Mannitol Salt Agar(MSA),selective&differential,Halophilic bacteria only,staphylococcus,mannitol fermenters(yellow),non-fermenters(red).Chocolate
agar(CA),enriched growth medium,isolation&identification of fastidious bacteria.#Of bacteria(multiply how many times)#of hour/How many hours does it multiply that number of times. Visible Light is
the source of illumination:(up to 2000X) Bright Field Microscope-Most widely used-forms image when light is transmitted through the specimen-specimen produces image darker
than illuminated field-Can be live,unstained&preserved,stain specimens.Dark Field Microscope-no condenser for bright=dark,stop blocks all light from entering the objective lens
except for peripheral light,specimen produces image that is brightly illuminated against a dark field,Effective for visualizing living cells that would be distorted by drying or heat or
that can’t be stained with usual methods-no visualization of fine internal details of cells.Phase Contrast Microscope-for live specimens,contrasted against gray background,for
internal cell details.Differential-Interference Microscope-allows for detailed view of live, unstained specimens-two prisms that add contrasting colors,image
colorful&3d.Ultraviolet rays are the source of illumination(up to 2000X).Fluorescence Microscope -UV radiation source+filter,Used with dyes that show fluorescence under UV
ray,colored image against a black field,for diagnosing infections caused by specific bacteria, protozoa, and viruses using fluorescent antibodies.Confocal Microscope-viewing cells
at higher magnifications using a laser beam of light to scan various depths in the specimen-fluorescently stained specimens,electron beam forms image of specimen,Originally
developed for studying non biological materials(early 1930s) forms image with a beam of electrons.Electrons travel in wavelike patterns 1,000 times shorter than visible light
waves -increases the resolving power(magnification-5,000X and 1,000,000X). Transmission Electron Microscope(up to 100,000X)- structures of cells and viruses,Electrons are
transmitted through the specimen,thing must be very thin(20-100 nm thick)and stained to increase image contrast,dark areas of a TEM image represent thicker or denser
parts.Scanning Electron Microscope (up to 650,000X)-creates detailed 3d view of all kinds of objects, electrons bombard the surface of a whole metal-coated specimen,electrons
deflected from the surface are picked up by a sophisticated detector,displayed as an image on a television screen. Transduction:bacterial cell receiving bacterial genetic
information from a virus. Acid fast bacteria has a waxy outer wall, it is similar to gram-positive bacteria. They are not easily stained by gram stain due to the waxy layer. They are
high in lipids and the lipid is made with complex hydrocarbon Mycolic acid. It can be stained with Carbol Fuchsin and it can not be removed with acid alcohol solution. The
staining process is 1. Air dry and heat fix a thin film of microorganisms. Allow the slide to cool. 2. Flood the slide with Carbolfuchsin. Steam the slide with a Bunsen burner over
the sink. Let the slide set for 5 minutes. Rinse with water. 3. Flood slide with Acid Alcohol for 30 seconds. Rinse with water. 4. Counterstain by flooding the slide with Methylene
Blue for 30 seconds. Rinse with water. 5. Dry the slide by putting it between the pages of a book of Bibulous paper. 6. View organisms using the oil immersion objective of your
microscope. Acid fast bacteria include the ones in the genes mycobacteria. Gram staining is not always an effective technique for classifying some types of bacteria, namely
acid-fast bacteria. Acid-fast bacteria usually stain weakly Gram-negative or Gram-variable. They are similar to Gram-negative bacteria in that they both have thinner layers of
peptidoglycan comprising the cell wall as well as an outer lipid membrane coating the cell wall (Note: this outer membrane is in addition to the bilayer beneath the cell wall that
constitutes the cytoplasmic membrane, which all types of bacteria have). While Gram-negative bacteria contain an outer phospholipid bilayer rich in lipopolysaccharide, acid-fast
bacteria have a much more complex layer beyond their cell walls. Directly above the peptidoglycan cell wall is an arabinogalactan (a type of structural polysaccharide) layer, which
is covalently bound to a layer of mycolic acids that comprise the inner leaflet of the outermost lipid bilayer. The outer leaflet of the outermost acid-fast lipid bilayer contains free
mycolic acids, phospholipids, and glycolipids. This outer layer also contains surface proteins and porin proteins that span the outer membrane, allowing transport of specific small
molecules in and out of the cell.