PSYCHOLOGICAL

Statistic
STATISTICS -​ a value (numerical) that describes the sample.
-​ usually derived from measurements of individuals in the
sample
I. INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS Statistical Methods

●​ Descriptive Statistics
I. Statistics, Science, and Observations -​ statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and
simplify data
Statistics -​ (summarizes and organizes)
➔​ a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,
summarizing, and interpreting information ●​ Inferential statistics
-​ Techniques that allow us to study samples and then make
Uses of Statistics generalizations about the population from which they
➔​ organizes and summarizes the information to interpret were selected.
and communicate results to others -​ (makes generalizations)
➔​ answer the research questions by determining general
conclusions from the results obtained
Sampling error
-​ A discrepancy that exists between statistic and the
II. Populations and Samples corresponding population parameter
-​ A statistical error that arise when a sample does not
Population represent the whole population
➔​ the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular
study Margin of error
-​ a summary of sampling error
Sample -​ the degree of uncertainty that your survey results
➔​ set of individuals selected from a population might have
➔​ represent the population in a research study
Example:
Variables
➔​ a characteristic or condition that changes or has
different values for different individuals

-​ Examples: height, weight, gender, personality,

temperature, time of day, size of the room, etc.

Data
➔​ Measurements or observations

Datum
➔​ Singular term for data
➔​ Commonly called score or raw score

Data Set
➔​ a collection of measurements or observations

Parameter
-​ a value (numerical) that describes a population
-​ usually derived from measurements of the individuals in
the population
 Example

III. Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics

Individual Variables
-​ characteristics or attributes of individuals that are being
studied in a research project
-​ Describe individual variables as they naturally exist

Examples: eating, sleeping, and study habits

Relationship between variables

-​ Examine relationships between two or more variables
Two other variables need to be considered:
1.​ Participant Variables
2 data structures that classify different types of research methods
-​ Characteristics such as age, gender, and
and statistical techniques:
intelligence that vary from one individual to
another.
★​ Correlational Method
-​ Measuring two variables for each individual
2.​ Environmental Variables
-​ Two different variables are observed to
-​ Characteristics of the environment such as
determine whether there is a relationship
lighting, time of day, and weather conditions.
between them.
-​ A researcher must ensure that the individuals in
●​ Limitations treatment A are tested in the same environment
-​ Does not provide an explanation for the as the individuals in treatment B.
relationship
-​ Cannot demonstrate a cause-and-effect 3 Basic Techniques To Control Other Variables
relationship.
●​ Random Assignment
★​ Experimental and Nonexperimental Methods
-​ Each participant has an equal chance of
-​ Comparing two or more groups of scores
being assigned to each of the treatment
conditions
➢​ Experimental Method
Goal: to distribute the participants
-​ One variable is manipulated while another
characteristics evenly between the two groups
variable is observed and measured
-​ Demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship
●​ Matching
between two variables
-​ Ensure equivalent groups or equivalent
environments
●​ Characteristics that differentiate experiments from other
types of research studies:
●​ Holding them Constant

1.​ Manipulation
-​ The researcher manipulates one
Two Variables in Experimental Method
variable by changing its value from
one level to another. A second variable
●​ Independent Variable
is observed (measured) to determine
-​ The variable that is manipulated by the
whether the manipulation causes
researcher
changes to occur.
-​ The manipulated variable
2.​ Control
-​ The researcher must exercise control
●​ Dependent Variable
over the research situation to ensure
-​ The variable that is observed to assess the
that other extraneous variables do not
effect of the treatment
influence the relationship being
-​ The variable being measured
examined.
Conditions In An Experiment Pre-existing Groups

●​ Control Condition -​ The researcher cannot control the assignment of

-​ No-treatment condition participants to groups and can not ensure equivalent
-​ One that does not receive the experimental groups
treatment -​ Separate groups/conditioned already

●​ Experimental condition Pre-Post study

-​ Treatment condition -​ Compare scores before and after the study
-​ Receive the experimental treatment
IV. Variables and Measurements
➢​ Non-Exprimenal Methods: Nonequivalent Groups and
Prepost Studies Constructs
-​ a method of research that involves observing -​ Often called “hypothetical constructs”
and measuring variables as they occur naturally, -​ Internal characteristics that cannot be directly
without manipulating them or randomly observed, but are useful for describing and explaining
assigning participants. behaviors
-​ Researchers are not capable of controlling the -​ It is possible to observe and measure behaviors that are
variables because they are something representative of the construct
unchangeable. The only thing it does is
measure the scores or data. Example:
●​ Construct - intelligence
●​ Quasi-Independent Variable ●​ Representative - intelligent behaviors
-​ The term used for the “independent variable” in
a nonexperimental study. Operational definition
-​ Describes a set of operations for measuring a
Example of Nonexperimental Group Studies: construct (measurement procedures)
●​ Comparing 8-year old children and 10-year old -​ Defines the construct in terms of the resulting
children measurements
●​ People with eating disorder and those with no
disorder
●​ Comparing a children from a single-parent Discrete and Continous Variables
home and those from a two-parent home ●​ Discrete Variables
-​ Consists of separate, indivisible categories.
*In a nonexperimental method, you cannot control -​ Whole, countable numbers
participant variables and ensure equivalent groups* Example: number of students

Example: ●​ Continuous Variables

-​ Not limited to a fixed set of separate, indivisible
categories
-​ Infinite number of fractional parts
Example: time, height, and weight

Interval
-​ Each measurement category defined by boundaries

Real Limits
-​ Boundaries of intervals for scores that are represented
on continuous number line
-​ Positioned exactly halfway between adjacent scores

Upper Real Limit

-​ At the top of the interval
 Examples:
Lower Real Limit
-​ At the bottom

Example:

For example, two people who both claim to weigh 150 pounds are
probably not exactly the same weight. However, they are both
around 150 pounds. One person may actually weigh 149.6 and the
other 150.3.

Getting the Real Limits:

Step 1. Identify the class interval

E.g: 149, 150, 151

Step 2. Determine the real limits

Lower real limit

-​ Subtract 0.5 from the lowest value in the interval

Upper real limit

-​ Add 0.5 to the highest value in the interval

Just simply add 0.5 to the lowest score and subtract 0.5 to the
highest score

Nominal Scale
-​ Set of categories that have different names
-​ Used to categorize

Example: measuring the academic majors for a group of

college student
Categories: Art, biology, business, chemistry
Ordinal Scale Below is a demonstration how summation notation is used
-​ Set of categories that are organized in an ordered
sequence We will compute ΣX, ΣX^2, and (ΣX)^2 for these scores.
-​ Rank observations in terms of size or magnitude

Example:
-​ Socioeconomic status
Categories: upper, middle lower
-​ T-shirt sizes
Categories: small, medium, large

Interval Scale
-​ Ordered categories that are all intervals of exactly the
same size (no absolute zero)
-​ Data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced

Ratio Scale
-​ An interval scale with the additional feature of an
absolute zero point

See figure below.

V. Statistical Notations

X, Y - variables
X - raw score/original value
N- number of scores in a set
N - population
n - sample size
Test your knowledge!
Σ - summation
Σx - summation of x

See the book for answers, p.54.

See p.58-59 for more practice exercises.

CHAPTER 2 - FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS

I. Introduction to Frequency Distributions

Frequency distribution
-​ An organized tabulation of the number of individuals
located in each category on the scale of measurement.
-​ Can be structured as a table or as a graph but should
present the same two elements:
1.​ Set of categories
2.​ Record of frequency/number of individual in
each category

Types:

●​ Ungrouped Freuency Distribution

-​ Number of observations of each value of a
variable

●​ Grouped Frequency Distribution

-​ The number of observation of each class
interval of a variable

●​ Cumulative Frequency
-​ Sum of the frequencies less than or equal to
each value or class interval of a variable

II. Frequency Distribution Tables

-​ presents the measurement scale by listing the different
measurement categories (X values) in a column from
highest to lowest.

Examples of frequency distribution table:

Pratice Exercise
1. Scores

See answers in p. 66

Additional:

Grouped Frequency Distribution

-​ Numerical width of any class in a particular distribution
Class Interval Frequency Guidline
a.​ There hould be at least 10 intervals The next step is to actually identify the intervals. The lowest score
b.​ The width of each interval should be a simple number for these data is X= 53, so the lowest interval should contain this
c.​ Bottom score in each interval should be a multiple of the value. Because the interval should have a multiple of 5 as its
width bottom score, the interval should begin at 50. The interval has a
d.​ All intervals should be the same width and they should width of 5, so it should contain 5 values: 50, 51, 52, 53, and 54.
cover the range with no gaps Thus, the bottom interval is 50 - 54 and so on with the same width
of 5.
For grouped frequency distribution, the total number of rows can
be obtained by finding the difference between the highest and Once the class intervals are listed, you complete the table by
lowest scores and adding 1 adding a column of frequencies.

Rows = highest - lowest + 1

Example

Scores:
82, 75, 88, 93, 53, 84, 87, 58, 72, 94, 69, 84, 61,
91, 64, 87, 84, 70, 76, 89, 75, 80, 73, 78, 60

Highest = 94, Lowest = 53

Rows = highest - lowest + 1

= 94 - 53 + 1
= 42

42 rows are still too many, hence let’s use the systematic
trial-and-error approach (guidlines a and b) using interval widths
which is usually 2, 5, and 10.

For this example, the scores cover a range of 42 points, so we will

try several different interval widths to see how many intervals are
needed to cover this range. For example, if each interval is 2
points wide, it would take 21 intervals to cover a range of 42 See answers in p. 69
points. This is too many, so we move on to an interval width of 5
or 10 points. The following table shows how many intervals
would be needed for these possible widths: III. Frequency Distribution Graphs
-​ It is basically a picture of the information available in a
frequency distribution table.
-​ We consider several different types of graphs, but all
start with two perpendicular lines called axes.

X-axis
-​ The horizontal line
-​ The abscissa
-​ Set of x values

Y-axis
-​ Vertical line
-​ The ordinate
Notice that an interval width of 5 will result in about 10 intervals, -​ Frequencies
which is exactly what we want.
Graphs for Interval or Ratio Data IV. The Shape of a Frequency Distribution

Histograms Symmetrical
A.​ The height of the bar corresponds to the frequency for -​ one side of the distribution is a mirror image of the other
that category.
B.​ For continuous variables, the width of the bar extends to Skewed
the real limits of the category. For discrete variables, -​ the scores tend to pile up toward one end of the scale
each bar extends exactly half the distance to the adjacent and taper off gradually at the other end
category on each side.
3 Characteristics of distribution:

Shape - exact relationship between each x and y values on the

graph

Central tendency - central of the distribution

Example:
Variability - tell whether the scores are spread over a wide range
or are clustered together

________

Tail
-​ the section where the scores taper off toward one end of
a distribution
Polygons
-​ List the numerical values along the x-axis Positively skewed
-​ A dot is centered above each score so that the vertical -​ the tail points toward the positive end of the x-axis
position of the dot corresponds to the frequency for the (right)
category.
Negatively skewed
-​ The tail points to the left

Bar graphs
-​ A bar graph is essentially the same as a histogram,
except that spaces are left between adjacent bars.
See p. 76 for answers

V. Percentile, Percentile Ranks, and Interpolation

Percentile Rank
-​ The percentage of individuals in the distribution with Where:
scores to or less than the particular value.
-​ Describe the position of individual scores within a cf = cumulative frequencies
distribution N = total number of scores or the totality of the frequencies

Percentile
-​ A score that is identified by its percentile rank

Cumulative Frequency
-​ Show the number of individuals located at or below each
score
-​ Obtained by adding up the frequencies in and below that
category

Example

Practice exercise

See p. 83 for answers

Cf = adding the f from the bottom to the top

Bottom = 2
Second to the last: 4+2 = 6 ​
Third: 2+4+8 = 14
Second: 2+4+8+5 = 19 ​
First: 2+4+8+5+1 = 20

Cumulative percentage
-​ Convert frequencies into percentages
-​ Shows the percentage of individuals who are
accumulated as you move up the scale
CHAPTER 3 - CENTRAL TENDENCY

I. Overview

Central tendency
-​ A statistical measure to determine a single score that
defines the center of a distribution
-​ Attempts to identify the “average” or “typical” individual

II. Mean

Mean
-​ Arithmetic average
-​ The sum of the scores divided by the number of scores
-​ Represented by the x̄ or M (for sample) and μ (for
population)
-​ Balance point of the distribution

Formula for the sample mean

Mean As a Balance Point

-​ The distance above the mean are exactly balance by the
distance below the mean

Example:

Population consisting of 5 scores (1,2,6,6,10)

Examples: N=5
Σx = 25
For a population of N= 4 scores, μ = 25/5 = 5
3, 7, 4, 6

The mean is

M = $5 per boy
Find: the total money for the whole group (Σx)
In this, case we need to derive or just use or logic lmao (but the
formula is graded so…)
Notice that the mean balances the distances. That is, the total
distance below the mean is the same as the total distance above
the mean:

Below the mean: 4 + 3 = 7 points

Above the mean: 1 + 1 + 5 = 7 points

Weighted mean
-​ The overall sum of the scores for the combined group Σx = 10+18+32+6
(Σx), and Σx = 66
-​ The total number of scores in the combined group

Example:

First sample: there are 12 people and each person receives $6 Characteristics of the Mean:
n = 12
M=6 Changing a score
- changing the value of any score changes the mean.
Second sample: there are 12 people and each person receives $7
n=8 Example:
M=7
Quiz scores: 9, 8, 7, 5, and 1
If the two samples are combined, what is the mean for the total n=5
group? Σx = 30

Now suppose that the score of X = 1 is changed to X = 8. Note

that we have added 7 points to this individual’s score, which also
adds 7 points to the total (ΣX). Now, the nes distributions consists
of

9, 8, 7, 5, 8
Computing a Mean from a Frequency Distribution Table n=5​
Σx = 37
Introducing a new score or removing a score
-​ Adding a new score to a distribution, or removing an
existing score, usually changes the mean.

Example:
Original Sample​
n=5
M=7
Σx = 35
See p.106 for answers
What happens to the mean if a new score of X = 13 is
added to the sample?

Changed sample III. The Median

n=6
Σx = 35+13 = 48 ​ Median
-​ The midpoint of scores
-​ Separating the lower and higher points
-​ A distribution are listed in order from smallest to large
the point on the measurement scale below which 50% of
the scores in the distribution are located
-​ Used to open=ended distribution/ undetermined (infinite)
scores that make it impossible to compute a mean

Ordinal Scale
-​ No specific symbols or notation to identify the median
-​ Poin on the measurement scale below which 50% of the
score in the distribution are located

Finding the median for most distribution

Ordinal - list the scores in order
- Equal to a score in the list or a point between two scores
Adding or subtracting a constant from each score - Not algebraically defined or no equation
-​ If a constant value is added to every score in a
distribution, the same constant is added to the mean. Sample 1:
Similarly, if you subtract a constant from every score, the -​ n is an odd number (n=5)
same constant is subtracted from the mean. -​ 3, 5, 8, 10, 11
-​ the middle score is 8, so the median is equal to 8
Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant
-​ If every score in a distribution is multiplied by (or Sample 2:
divided by) a constant value, the mean changes in the -​ n is an even number (n = 6)
same way. -​ 1, 1, 4, 5, 7, 8
-​ Get the middle pair of score, add together, divide by 2
 -​ You usually can compute two or even three measures of
central tendency for the same set of data.
-​ Mean is usually the preferred measure of central
tendency because it produces a good representative
value.
-​ Remember that the goal of central tendency is to find the
single value that best represents the entire distribution.
See p.111 for answers

IV. Mode

Mode
-​ It has the greatest frequency
-​ The term mode means the “customary fashion” or a
“popular style”
-​ Only measure of central tendency that corresponds to an
actual score in the data
-​ It is possible for a distribution to have more than one
mode
-​ Easily located by finding the peak in a frequency
distribution graph or table

Bimodal When to use the median:

-​ Two modes
Extreme scores or skewed distribution
Multimodal
-​ More than two modes

Example of mode.

Consider, for example, the distribution of n 10 scores

in Figure 3.8. For this sample, the mean is

Mean = 20.3
Median = 11.50

Notice that the mean is not very representative of any score in this
distribution. Although most of the scores are clustered between 10
and 13, the extreme score of X= 100 inflates the value of X and
distorts the mean.
See p. 113 for answers
Undetermined Values
V. Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency
-​ Unknown or the undetermined score
 -​ Ordinal measurements allow you to determine direction
Example: (greater than or less than) but do not allow you to
determined distance
-​ Median: direction
-​ Mean: distance

When to Use the Mode:

Nominal Scale
-​ Differentiated only by names
-​ Do not measure quantity (distance/direction)

Discrete Variables
-​ Exists only in whole, indivisible categories

Describing Shape
-​ Because the mode requires little or no calculation, it is
often included as a supplementary measure along with
the mean or median as a no-cost extra.
-​ The value of the mode (or modes) in this situation is that
it gives an indication of the shape of the distribution as
well as a measure of central tendency.

Open-ended distributions
-​ No upper limit (or lower limit) for one of the categories

VI. Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution

Symmetrical distribution
●​ Median - middle
●​ Mean - equal to the median
●​ Mode - if there is only one mode, then it has the same
value too

The table in the margin provides an example of an open-ended

distribution, showing the number of pizzas eaten during a 1 month
period for a sample of n 20 high school students. The top
category in this distribution shows that three of the students
consumed “5 or more” pizzas. This is an open-ended category.
Notice that it is impossible to compute a mean for these data
Skewed Distribution
because you cannot find X (the total number of pizzas for all 20
●​ Mode - located towards the side where the scores pile up
students). However, you can find the median. Listing the 20
●​ Mean - pulled toward the extreme scores in the tail
scores in order produces X 1 and X 2 as the middle two scores.
●​ Median - located between the two values
For these data, the median is 1.5.

Ordinal Scale
-​ Directions not distance
 CHAPTER 4 - MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

Variability
-​ Provides a quantitative measure of differences between
scores in a distribution
-​ Describes the degree to which the scores are spread out
or clustered together

Goal: Measure the amount of variability of a particular set of

scores

Two purposes:

1.​ Variability describes the distribution

-​ Tells whether the scores are clustered together
See p.121 for answers or are spread out over a large distance
-​ Defined in terms of distance

2.​ Measures how well an individual score (or group of

scores) represents the entire distribution

3 basic measures of variability

●​ The Range - gaano kalayo yung scores

-​ Additional: Quartiles
●​ Standard Deviation
●​ Variance
-​ Standard deviation and variance are the most
commonly used measures of variability.

Range
●​ Formula: Xmax - Xmin
-​ Distance covered by the scores in a distribution
-​ Difference between the upper real limit (URL) for the
largest score (Xmax) and the lower real limit (LRL) for
the small score (Xmin)

Calculate for the range: 2, 3, 5, 8, 10

Problems with Range:

1.​ The results are completely determined by the two

extreme values, and the other scores in the distribution
are ignored.
2.​ Does not give an accurate description of the variability.

Quartiles
-​ Measures of central tendency that divide a group of data
into four subgroups.

●​ Q1: 25% of the data below is the 1st quartile

●​ Q2: 50% of the data below is the 2nd quartile
●​ Q3: 75% of the data below is the 3rd quartile
●​ Q4: 100% of the data below is the 4th quartile

Q1 = 25th percentile
Q2 = 50th percentile
Q3 = 75th percentile

Quartile values are not necessarily the ______

Percentile: Computational procedure

-​ Organize the data into an ascending-ordered array.

Calculate the percentile location:

I.​ Whole number

-​ Percentile is the average of the values at the i and (i + 1)
positions
i=2+3
II.​ Not Whole number i=3
-​ Percentile is at the i + 1 position in the ordered array. 30th percentile is the 3rd number, which is 13.
Inter-quartile Range
-​ Ignores extreme scores, and measures the range covered
by the middle 50% of the distribution.
1.​ Locates the boundary that separates the lowest 25% of
the distribution from the rest (Q1)
2.​ Locates the boundary that separates the top 25% of the
distribution (Q3)

Semi-Interquartile Range
-​ Describes the variability, commonly transformed into the
semi-interquartile range.
-​ Half of the interquartile range
-​ Gives a better and more stable measure of variability
than the range.

Standard Deviation and Variance for a Population

Standard Deviation
-​ Most commonly used and the most important measure of
variability
-​ it provides a measure of the standard distance form the
mean
-​ The square root of the variance

Population Variance
-​ Equals the mean squared deviation
-​ The average squared distance from the mean

Steps in getting the standard deviation

1.​ Find the deviation (distance from the mean) for each
score (X - μ)
2.​ Square each deviation (X - μ)²
3.​ Find the average of the squared deviations called the sum
of squared deviations (SS) Σ(X - μ)²
4.​ Divide the SS by the sample size Σ(X - μ)²/N
5.​ Take the square root of the variance to get the standard
deviation or the standard distance from the mean.
Example: Population Variance:

Sample Variance:

For a sample, only n – 1 of the scores are free to

vary (degrees of freedom or df = n – 1)

Degrees of freedom - determine the number of scores in the

sample that are independent and free to vary.

Population standard deviation:

See answers in P. 134

SS, or sum of squares

-​ The sum of the squared deviations

Sample standard deviation:

To find the sum of the squared deviations, the formula instructs

you to perform the following sequence of calculations:

1. Find each deviation score (X - μ)

2. Square each deviation score (X - μ)²
3. Add the squared deviations Σ(X - μ)²

Definitional formula: SS = Σ(X - μ)² ●​ Adding a constant value to every score in a distribution
does not change the standard deviation.
Computational formula:
●​ However, multiplying every score by a constant causes
the standard deviation to be multiplied by the same
constant.
 CHAPTER 5 - Z - SCORES: LOCATION OF
SCORES AND STANDARDIZED
DISTRIBUTIONS

I. Z - scores, and location in a distribution

Two useful purposes of transforming X values into z-scores:

1.​ Each z-score tells the exact location of the original X

value within the distribution.
2.​ The z-scores form a standardized distribution that can be
directly compared to other distributions that have also
been transformed into z-scores.

II. Z-scores and location in a distribution

Primary purposes of Z-scores:

-​ To describe the exact location of a score within a
distribution. The z-scores accomplishes this goal by
transforming each X value into a signed number (+ or -)
so that
1.​ The sign tells wether the score is located above
(+) or below (-) the mean, and
2.​ The number tells the distance between the score
and the mean in terms of the number of standard
deviations.
-​ A z-score always consists of two parts: a sign (+ or -)
and a magnitude.

Z-score formula:

Example 1:

See answers in p. 142 A distribution of scores has a mean of 100 and a standard
deviation of 10. What z-score corresponds to a score of X 130 in
this distribution?
 DETERMINING A RAW SCORE (X) FROM A z-SCORE
Example 2:
Formula:
A distribution of scores has a mean of 86 and a standard
deviation of 7. What z-score corresponds to a score of X 95 in
this distribution?

Example:

OTHER RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN z, X, μ, and σ

Finding the standard deviation:

Finding the mean for the population:

Learning Check Standardized Distribution
-​ Composed of scores that have been transformed to create
predetermined values for mean and standard deviation.
-​ Used to make dissimilar distributions comparable.

OTHER STANDARDIZED DISTRIBUTIONS BASED ON

z-SCORES

Procedures for standardizing a distribution to create new values

See answers in p. 169 for mean and standard deviation involve two steps:

1.​ The original raw scores are transformed into z-scores

2.​ The z-scores are then transformed into new X values so
USING z-SCORES TO STANDARDIZE A DISTRIBUTION that the specific mean and standard deviation are
attained.

Example:

The distribution of z-scores have the following properties:

1.​ Shape
-​ The distribution of z-scores will have exactly
the same shape as the original distribution of
scores.
2.​ The mean
-​ The z-score distribution will always have a
mean of zero. In Figure 5.5, the original
distribution of X values has a mean of 100.
When this value, X 100, is transformed into a
z-score, the result is

3.​ The standard deviation

-​ The distribution of z-scores will always have a
standard deviation of 1.
Learning check
 STANDARDIZING A SAMPLE DISTRIBUTION

Learning Check

See answers in p. 177

COMPUTING z-SCORES FOR A SAMPLE

Formula to get the z-score for a sample:

Transforming a z-score back into an X value:

See answers in p. 181
Summary