Cellular Architecture (Cellular communication, a marvel of modern technology, has revolutionized the way we connect and communicate. This intricate system, which underpins the functionality of mobile phones and other wireless communication devices, is founded on the ingenious concept of dividing geographic areas into multiple cells, each with its own base station and frequency range. This nnovative approach not only maximizes coverage and efficiency but also facilitates a seamless ‘and high-capacity network, The core of cellular communication lies in its sophisticated system architecture, encompassing a network of base stations, mobile switching centers and links to the public switched telephone network, The dynamic and adaptive nature of this system allows for Favanced features like frequency reuse, cell splitting and handoff, ensuring uninterrupted connectivity and high-quality service even as users move across different regions. Cellular communication, thus, stands as a testament to human ingenuity, transforming not. just individual lives but also reshaping the global landscape of information exchange and connectivity. Cellular architecture forms the backbone of modern mobile ‘communication systems. This chapter delves into the intricacies of cellular communication, exploring the fundamental concepts, system architectures and the evolution of cellular networks through various generations. 44.4, Cellular Concept ‘The cellular concept revolutionized the field of telecommunications by dividing a geographical This concept enables efficient frequency reuse, improved area into smaller units called cell: : coverage and enhanced capacity. Cells are the building plocks of a cellular network, each serving as an independent communication un (a) Use of Multiple Low-Pow' ‘ransmitters: The foundation of a cellular network is the employment of numerous low-power transmitters, generally each with a power of 100 watts or less. This setup enables coverage over a designated area by segmenting it into smaller zones known as cells, with each cell having its own antenna. () Design of Cellular Geometry: “While cells can assume various shapes, the hexagonal ‘ form is most prevalent and efficient. This shape ensis06 that all neighboring antennas are at equal distances from ‘each other, which facilitates the seamless transition of a mobile user to a neighboring antenna as they move around. The actual shape of cells, however, may differ due to the Jandscape and the way signals propagate. 778. il TRUE-EDU'S Wirsloag cre rina cellular syste ; wt (c) Concept of Frequency Reuse: In a cellul ar aystem, each cell has a base gee station, and the transmission powers Fegulated to support communiareg tng and. To prevent interference, adjacent cain iin, . cell on a specific frequency b: different frequencies. However, cells that are sufficiently far apart can ys Sang frequency band again, The key is maintaining enough distance between eels jy frequency to avoid signal interference. Shate g (@ Patterns for Frequency Reuse: There are various patterns for reusing freque such as N=4, N=7, and N=19 configurations. The chosen pattern determines many frequencies each cell can utilize and the overall effectiveness in frequency a (¢) Strategies for Increasing Capacity: With the growth in cellular network usage, ten; like adding new channels, borrowing frequencies, splitting cells, and sectorng ga employed to handle the increased load. Spiting cells involves dividing larger celg;¢® smaller ones, which is particularly useful in areas with heavy traffic. Sectoring cell means dividing it into sectors shaped like wedges, each with its own set of channels, ( Implementation of Microcells: In scenarios where cell sizes are reduced even further, they evolve into microcells. These are particularly beneficial in densely populated thay areas. Antennas for microcells are often placed on smaller structures, such as lamp posts or building sides. i /% es | ee | As you can see in square pattern the distance between neighbours is not uniform , and its undesirable to have such variations in distance between neighbors, these are low power transmits so there shouldn’t be too much variation of distance. Notice Hexagonal layout requires few" cells to cover a given area. And in practice slight variation of this pattern is used becuase the terrain of mountains, rivers, plains and other factors of acquiring land for antenna placemett doesn’t make it easy to execute this pattern on the ground, 4.1.2. Cellular System Architecture The cellular system architecture encompasses a network of interconnected cells, base pare and mobile devices. This section explores the hierarchical structure of cellular new"— celular Architecture ; : gmphasizing the roles of Mobile Switching Centers (MSCs) and Base Station Subsystems (BSS) jn facilitating seamless communication, it Arrangement of Cells: In all cellutar systems, the geographical land area is divided into a umber 0 cells each with its radio service, these cells are hexagonal in shape and each cell uses a frequency range that is not used by adjacent cells, At the center of each station is base station through which mobile phones transmit data and voice, ‘The following are central components in the cellular architecture: (@ Mobile Switching Center (MSC) or Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office (MTSO): ¢ Role: The MSC is the heart of a cellular network. It acts as a central hub that connects calls between mobile users and between mobile and fixed network users. Functions: (@) Call Routing and Control: The MSC is responsible for setting up and managing voice and data connections. It routes calls to their intended destinations and manages the release of these calls. (ii) Handoff Management: As a mobile user moves from one cell to another, the MSC handles the transfer of the call to the new cell’s base station without interruption. (ii) Interfacing with Other Networks: The MSC facilitates interconnection with other networks like the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and other cellular networks. “ (6) Base Station Subsystem (BSS): ¢ Role: The BSS connects mobile devices (like cell phones) to the MSC and by extension, to the broader network. ¢ Components: (i) Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Located within each cell, the BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. It transmits and receives over the airwaves and is responsible for the quality of the radio link. (ii) Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC controls multiple BTSs. Itallocates radio * channels, manages handoffs between BTSs within its control and controls paging. ¢ Functions; () Radio Path Management: The BSS manages the radio paths and ensures optimal signal strength and quality in communications. (i) Resource Allocation: It allocates radio channels and manages the load of each BTS to optimize network capacity and performance. Working: i At the center ‘Of each cell a Base Station is present which includes an antenna, a controller ae transceivers. Within each cell there may be many mobile communication devices nt which communicate with BS. Base Stations are connected to each other using MSCs or presa - ill TRUE-EDU’S Wireless Communica MTSOs which is responsible for connecting the call between two devices, it may be fixed Substibgr line or mobile device. . There are 2 types of Channels between mobile devices and Base stations: (9 Control Channel (i) Traffic Channel. Control channels are used to exchange information. having to do with setting up and maintainin, calls and with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit and the nearest BS. Traffic channely carry a voice or data connection between users. Y Base oc) transceiver| station ublic Mobile Fae (‘elecommunications telecommun| parca ae [rane switching ° office L_slation_} Base lransceiver| SS ——ems celtulat, Architecture : : 4.4.4. Clusters ee (a) Acluster isa group of cells within a cellular network. These clusters are fundamental to the concept of frequency reuse, which is key to maximizing the efficiency and capacity ofa network, Clusters are arranged in a pattern that repeats across the entire coverage area of the network. (b) The jdea behind clustering is to enable the reuse of frequencies across the network. Since each cell within a cluster uses a unique set of frequencies, the same set can be reused in another cluster, some distance away, without causing interference. This approach maximizes the use of available frequencies and serves a larger number of users. (c) The size of a cluster is typically determined by the number of cells it contains. The most common cluster sizes are based on hexagonal geometry and include 3-cell, 4-cell, 7-cell, and 12-cell clusters. The shape and size of a cluster are chosen based on various factors including geographic area, population density and the specific needs of the network. (@ Proper planning of clusters is crucial for managing interference. Co-channel interference (interference between cells using the same frequency) and adjacent channel interference (interference between cells using adjacent frequencies) must be carefully managed. (c) By strategically placing and sizing the clusters, network planners can minimize interference and optimize network performance. 4.4.5. Frequency Reuse Frequency reuse means using the same radio frequencies within a given area ata some considerable distance, it is a strategy to maximize the usage of available frequency bands across a geographical area. It involves several components: (@ Base Transceiver in Each Cell: Every cell ina cellular system is equipped with a base transceiver. The transmission power of these transceivers is carefully managed to allow communication within a cell using a specific frequency band, while limiting the power that might interfere with adjacent cells. (6) Usage of the Same Frequency Band in Non-Adjacent Cells: The idea is to reuse the same frequency band in multiple cells that are sufficiently distant from each other. This approach enables multiple simultaneous ‘conversations in different cells using the same frequency band. This is done because using the same frequency band in adjacent cells is not practical due to the risk of interference. (c) Assignment of Multiple Frequency Bands within a Cell: Depending on the expected traffic, multiple frequency bands can be assigned within a given cell to handle communication needs. (@) Key Design Considerations: An important aspect of frequency reuse is determining the minimum separation between cells using the same frequency band to prevent interference. This involves several parameters: (i) D: Minimum distance between the centers of cells using the same frequency band (termed as co-channels). (ii) R: Radius of a cell. wl| 82 il TRUE-EDU'S Wireless Communication (iii) N: Number of cells in a repeated pattern (cluster size), where each cell in thy pattern uses a unique set of frequency bands. This is known as the reuse factor (iv) Q: The parameter Q, called the co-channel reuse ratio, is related to the cluster size, D Say A small value of Q provides larger capacity, since R is large and N is smalter meaning small cluster size, where as a large value of Q improves the itransmission quality, due to a smaller level of co-channel interference. Diagram: Cell Cluster Cell Co-Channel Cell Notice how at a certain distance D we can reuse frequencies in differnt clusters, here Fl, F2.. F7 are different frequency ranges shown for demonstration purposes. 4.1.6. Cell Spliting The process of dividing a congested cell, the basic geographic unit in a cellular network, into smaller, more numerous cells, each with its own base station and reduction in antenna height and power of transmitter is cell splitting. It is a fundamental technique used in cellular networks to increase capacity and manage network congestion. Purpose of Cell Splitting: © Cell splitting is primarily used to accommodate a growing number of users in a densely populated area or in areas where demand for mobile services is high. © By splitting a cell into smaller cells, the network can support more simultaneous users, a each smaller cell uses its own set of frequencies. Proces: © Incell splitting, a larger cell (often called a macrocell) is divided into several smaller cells (microcells or picocells).ae cellular Architecture P © This division is achieved by installing additional base stations with lower power transmitters within the original cell’s area, + Each new, smaller cell operates independently, with its own base station and allocated frequencies. Frequency Reuse: © Cell splitting effectively increases the frequency reuse in the network, As cells are split and become smaller, the same frequencies can be reused more frequently within the network, significantly increasing its capacity. « The reuse of frequencies, however, must be carefully managed to avoid interference between adjacent cells. Managing Interference: * Cell © One challenge of cell splitting is managing the increased potential for interference, especially in areas where cells are densely packed. © Network engineers use various techniques, such as careful frequency planning and the use of directional antennas, to minimize interference between closely situated cells. Improved Service Quality: © Smaller cells generally mean that mobile devices need less power to communicate with the base station, which can lead to improved battery life and better service quality, including clearer voice calls and faster data connections. Scalability and Flexibility: © Cell splitting provides a scalable and flexible approach to network design. As the demand for mobile services changes, cells can be split or combined (through cell breathing) to optimize network performance. © This adaptability is particularly useful in urban areas where population density and demand patterns can change rapidly. ‘Types of Smaller Cells: () Microcells: These are used in urban areas and are characterized by their relatively small size and lower power base stations. (2km) (i) Picocells: Even smaller than microcells, picocells are used in densely populated indoor environments like shopping malls and office buildings. (200 metres) (ii) Femtocells: These are very small cells, typically used for individual homes or small businesses, connecting to the network via broadband internet. (10 metres) 4.4.7, Handott _ Handoff, also known as handover, is a critical process in cellular networks that transfers an a call and ensures continuous and seamless service to mobile users as they move from the LD area of. one cell to another. It’s a fundamental aspect of mobile communication that Susers to maintain uninterrupted calls or data sessions while on the move. Ahandoff occurs when a mobile device (like a smartphone) moves out of the range of its "Tent cell’s base station and enters the range of another.a TRUE-EDU'S Wireless Communication © The network automatically transfers the ongoing call or data session to the new cell’s hace station without interrupting the service, Handoff categories based on Network: (a) Intra-system Handoff: This occurs within the same cellular network, often managed by the same Mobile Switching Center (MSC). (b) Inter-system Handoff: This involves transferring the service between two different systems, which could be different types of networks (e.g. froma cellular network tog Wi-Fi network). Process: The process begins when the mobile device’s signal strength to its current base station diminishes and/or the signal strength to a neighboring base station strengthens, The network evaluates whether a handoff is necessary based on factors like signal strength, quality of service and the load on each base station. Once the network decides to initiate a handoff, it selects the most appropriate new base station and allocates a channel for the mobile device. When a mobile user is moving from one cell to another, the signal strength in that cell drops as the user drifts further from the base station and as the user enters another cell the strength increases for that cell again as soon as handoff occurs. Seamless Transition: © The key to a successful handoff is its transparency to the user. Ideally, the user should not notice any interruption or degradation in call quality. Handoff Criteria: Networks use various criteria for initiating a handoff, including: © Signal strength (RSSI - Received Signal Strength Indicator) © Signal quality (¢.g., bit error rates) © Distance from the base station (measured indirectly) © Traffic load balancing between cells Handoff Types: © Hard Handoff: A hard handoff is a “break-before-make” process. The connection with the current cell is terminated before a new connection is established with the next cell. Connection quality is not that good in this case. © Soft Handoff: The connection to the old cell is maintained until a reliable connection (0 the new cell is established. This process is often described as “make-before-break”. This is an expensive process.Cellular Architecture lu - Owe Challenges: © Handoff is a complex process and can face several challenges like dropped calls, especially in areas with high user density or where cells have overlapping coverage. © Fast-moving users (like those in high-speed vehicles) can also present a challenge as they may require more frequent handoffs. Technologies Enhancing HandofT: © Advanced algorithms and technologies are used to enhance the handoff process. These include predictive algorithms that estimate the path of a user and prepare potential target cells in advance. © Techniques like soft handoff (used in CDMA networks) and make-before-break strategies can minimize the risk of dropped connections during the transition. Impact on Network Performance: © Efficient handoff mechanisms are crucial for maintaining network performance and user satisfaction. They are essential for delivering consistent quality of service, especially in urban areas with high user mobility. ‘The transition from analog to digital communication marked a significant milestone in cellular technology. This shift to digitalization allowed advancement in cellular technology, enabling improved voice quality, higher capacity, enhanced security and the introduction of data services alongside traditional voice communication. In digital cellular systems, voice is converted intoee nl | TRUE-EDU’S Wireless Commuricaty digital data, which is then transmitted over the network using a process known as digital modulati ; ion, This transition allowed for more efficient use ofthe radio spectrum, facilitating more simutan calls within the same bandwidth compared to analog systems. There are several advantages this improvement such as: nt (a) Higher Capacity: By using techniques like time division multiple access (TDMA) ang code division multiple access (CDMA), digital systems can serve more users on the same frequency band. (®) Improved Security: Digital encryption provides better security against eavesdropping and unauthorized access. () Data Services: Introduction of services like SMS (Short Message Service), MMs (Multimedia Messaging Service) and later, access to the Internet and other data services, (@ Enhanced Quality: Reduced noise and clearer voice quality due to digital transmission, This section provides an in-depth exploration of digital cellular systems, including Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Personal Communication Service (PCS) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Multiple Access Techniques: Multiple access techniques enable numerous mobile users to concurrently utilize a limited range of radio frequencies. This simultaneous sharing of the spectrum is essential for attaining high capacity, as it involves distributing the available bandwidth or the existing number of channels among multiple users at the same time. There are many such techniques available like FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, ETDM, etc. 4. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital wireless telecommunication technology used in cellular and satellite communication. It’s one of the fundamental techniques for sharing communication channel. Basic Principle: © TDMA works by dividing a single communication channel (or frequency band) into multiple time slots. Each user of the channel is allocated a specific time slot during which they can transmit or receive data, there is one user per slot. © This division of time occurs in a cyclic pattern, meaning that each user is periodically given access to the channel for a short duration. Operation: © Ina TDMA system, the available bandwidth is divided by time. The signal is digital. meaning that voice is converted into binary data (0s and 1s) before transmission. Each user transmits in rapid succession, one after the other, each using their own tim? slot. This pattern repeats and the data transmission for users of TDMA is not continuo’ and it occurs in bursts.ae | \ colar Architecture lt a7 \ iz ane of TDMA is synchronization. All users must be precisely synchronized with the network to ensure that they transmit and receive during their allocated time slots and do not interfere with others. e The base station typically provides timing and synchronization signals to the mobile devices. Bfficiency and Capacity: e By allocating time slots, TDMA efficiently utilizes the available bandwidth. It can accommodate more users compared to analog systems or non-time-divided digital systems. © The exact number of users supported depends on how the network operator configures the ! time slots and the overall bandwidth of the system. Example of TDMA: Imagine a conversation on a TDMA-based network. Your voice is digitized and then transmitted in bursts during specific, recurring time slots. For instance, if the system has four time slots, you might transmit during the first slot, another user during the second and so on. After the fourth slot, the cycle repeats and you transmit again during the first slot. ‘This rapid cycling is not very noticeable in real-time conversation. ( Advantag © Increased Capacity: TDMA allows multiple users to share the same frequency without interference. * Improved Battery Life: Mobile devices only need to transmit during their time slots, allowing them to be idle and conserve power at other times. © Reduced Interference: As users transmit at different times, there’s less chance of signal interference. Applications: © TDMA was widely used in the second generation (2G) of mobile communications, notably in the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) standard for cordless phones. 4.2.2. ETDM (Electrical Time Division Multiplexing) ETDM, or Electrical Time Division Multiplexing, is a method used in communication systems } to combine multiple data streams into a single signal over a shared medium. It’s a variation of the ~ basic principle of time-division multiplexing (TDM), specifically tailored for electrical signals. Basic Principle: * InETDM, multiple electrical data signals are combined and transmitted over a single communication channel, such as a copper wire or an optical fiber. y ae is achieved by dividing the time available on the communication channel into separate ie slots, each allocated to a different data signal.ee 88 | TRUE-EDU'S Wireless Communication Operatio Each data stream is assigned a specific time slot in a repeating cycle. During its time a data stream is allowed to send a portion of its information. * This process involves rapid switching between the different data streams, so fast that i appears as if the transmission is continuous, even though its not. Synchronizatios * Synchronization is crucial in ETDM. The multiplexer (which combines the data streams for transmission) and the dernultiplexer (which separates them at the receiving end) must be synchronized to ensure that each data stream is correctly extracted from the correct time slot. slot, * Acommon clock signal is often used to maintain this synchronization. Advantages: © Efficiency: ETDM allows multiple data streams to share a single channel, making efficient use of the available bandwidth. ¢ Reduced Infrastructure: It reduces the need for multiple parallel channels, thereby saving on infrastructure.and costs. © Flexibility: The system can be designed to allocate bandwidth dynamically based on demand. Applications: © ETDM is commonly used in digital telecommunication systems and data communication networks, including some types of high-speed computer networks. © It’s also employed in scenarios where high bandwidth utilization and efficient data transmission are necessary. Challenges: © One of the challenges of ETDM is the need for precise timing and synchronization to prevent data from different streams from overlapping. © As data rates increase, the timing and switching speeds become more critical, demanding more advanced and precise technology. 4.2.3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA, or Code Division Multiple Access, is a digital communication technique used in li telecommunications. It’s a form of multiplexing that allows numerous signals to occupy the same transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. Basic Principle: * In CDMA, each communication signal (such as a phone call or data transmission) is encoded using a unique code before it is transmitted, this is also called as codeword.a catlar Architecture lh 89 @ These codes are designed So that they are orthogonal with each other-meaning that they are mathemat ically independent of each other and the cross-correlation between any two codes is zero or near Zero. (non-interfering), allowing multiple signals to be superimposed over the same frequency band and then separated at the receiver. Spread Spectrum Technology: « CDMA employs spread spectrum technology, where each data signal is spread over a wide frequency range, much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to transmit it. This spreading is achieved by combining the data signal with a code sequence (often called a spreading code or chip sequence) that has a much higher frequency than the data signal. Unique Codes for Each User: Every user ina CDMA system is assigned a unique code. When a user transmits data, their data signal is multiplied by this unique code. © These unique codes are designed to be orthogonal to each other, which means that the cross-correlation between any two codes is zero or near zero. This property allows the receiver to distinguish between different users’ signals. Simultaneous Transmission: © Multiple users transmit simultaneously over the same frequency band. At the receiver's end, the composite signal is demultiplexed to extract the individual signals. « ‘The receiver uses the same unique code as the transmitter to decode the signal. It multiplies the composite signal by the intended user's code, which isolates that user’s signal from the rest. Ac eS: © Capacity: CDMA can support a large number of users per MHz of bandwidth, making it highly efficient. © Security: The use of unique spreading codes provides inherent security and privacy. © Resistance to Interference: CDMA has a high resistance to interference and signal fading. ) lity: It offers more flexibility in allocating resources dynamically based on demand. Applications: * CDMA has been widely used in mobile telephony (notably in 3G networks), wireless data communication and in some satellite communication systems. Challenges: © One challenge in CDMA systems is the near-far problem, where a strong signal from a hearby transmitter can overwhelm weaker signals, making them hard to detect. * Managing the system capacity is also complex, as it depends on the variable data rates and signal quality requirements of individual users.20 il TRUE-EDU’S Wireless Communication 4.2.4. Personal Communication Service(PCS) ee PCS, or Personal Communication Services, refers to a set of wireless Communications capabilities that go beyond traditional cellular mobile telephony. It's a concept that encompasses various types of wireless voice and data communications. When wireless communication became populare around mid 1990s, the governments throughout the world provided increased Competition and new radio spectrum licenses for Personal Communications services (PCS) in the 1200. 2000MHz frequency bands. Broad Definition: * PCS is not confined to a specific technology or standard; rather, it represents a broad range of wireless communication services that include voice calls, text messaging, and data transmission. : © The services are aimed at providing users with a comprehensive personal communication solution, often emphasizing portability, individuality and flexibility. Technologies Involved: * PCS can encompass various digital technologies, including CDMA, GSM and TDMA, The choice of technology affects aspects like call quality, data speed and network capacity, £ * PCS networks are generally digital, which provides advantages in terms of capacity, security and range of services compared to older analog systems. Service Characteristics: * PCS services are characterized by their focus on individual user needs. This includes features like caller ID, voice mail, short message service (SMS) and Internet connectivity, * The services are tailored to provide seamless communication, irrespective of the user's Network Infrastructure: . The PCS network infrastructure typically includes smaller cell sizes compared to traditional cellular networks, This enables more efficient frequency reuse and higher capacity. * The infrastructure consists of base stations, mobile Switching centers, and other ‘ypical components of a cellular network, but optimized for the PCS frequency band and services. Applications and Advantages: * Applications range from basic voice communication to advanced data services, Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), WiFi, WiMax, etc, which allow internet browsing. ‘ range ee particularly in data iors eat security, privacy and a wideta ae collar Aritecture 4.2.5. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) : GSM Global System for Mobile Communications) is a standard developed to describe otocols fOr second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile phones. It was é eveloped t0 solve fragmentation Problems of the first cellular Systems in Europe. It became the global standard for mobile communications and enabled international roaming. ‘ Development and Adoption: GSM was developed by the European Telecommunicat : y Euro tions Standards Institute (ETSI) to standardize mobile communications across Europe in the 1980s. © Itquickly became popular worldwide, leading to widespread internatio: Europe. Technology and Network Structure: © GSM is a digital system that uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) for channel access. This means the available bandwidth is divided into time slots, with each user having access to the channel at different times. mnal adoption beyond © The network structure of GSM includes several key components: (@ Mobile Station (MS): The mobile device (cell phone). i) Base Station Subsystem (BSS): Includes Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) that communicate directly with the mobile stations and Base Station Controllers (BSC) that control multiple BTSs. (ii) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS): Includes the main switching functions and also manages the communication between GSM and other networks. (i) Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS): Handles network management and maintenance. uency Bands; | * GSM operates in multiple frequency bands: 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 1900 | MHz. Different regions use different frequency bands. Key Features: 2 * SIM Card (Subscriber Identity Module): GSM introduced the use of SIM cards, which store user identity, network authorization data, personal security keys and contact lists. * Encryption: GSM encrypts voice calls and data transmissions to secure communication. * Data Services: Initially designed for voice communication, GSM also supports data services like SMS (Short Message Service) and later different technologies like GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) for data transmission.al # ill TRUE-EDU'S Wireless Communicatg, International Roaming: © One of GSM’s significant advantages is its support for international roaming, allow users to use their mobile phones in different countries with compatible GSM networks. Global Impact: * GSM played a crucial role in the global standardization of mobile communication, significantly impacting the way people communicate worldwide. It enabled affordable and accessible mobile communication on large scale. 4.3. GSM Network The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) network is a comprehensive framework that includes several key components, each playing a crucial role in ensuring efficient and seamless mobile communication. The primary components in the Switching System are the Base Station Subsystem (BSS), the Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS), the Operation and Support System (OSS) and Mobile Station (MS). 4. Network Switching System (NSS) The Switching System, also known as the Network and Switching Subsystem, is the core part of the GSM network that handles call routing, call setup and basic switching functions of GSM calls. Components: (a) Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC): The main component of the SS, the MSC is responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as setting up and releasing end-to- end connections. () Home Location Register (HLR): A database that contains details of each subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network, including their service plan, current location and authentication information. (c) Visitor Location Register (VLR): A database that temporarily stores information about subscribers currently within the jurisdiction of the MSC itis associated with. (@ Authentication Center (AuC): A protected database that stores a copy of the secre! ey stored in each subscriber's SIM card, used for authentication and encryption. () Equipment Identity Register (EIR): A database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, identified by their IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) Functionality: = The NSS manages signaling processes required for call establishment, maintenance, and disconnection. It also handles mobile management operations like registration, authentication, location updating and handovers. 4.3.2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS) © ‘The BSS connects mobile users to the network and manages the radio link with the mobilz station.chitecture lh 93 nents: 3 f ; : fh coe Tansee er Station (BTS): These are the radio transmitters/receivers that define | BAS! and communicate directly withthe mobile stations. Each BTS covers specific | an, known asa cell Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC manages and controls several BTSs. It allocates radio channels, handles handover from one BTS to another within its area and aggregates data for transmission to the MSC. | oust Functionality: ; ae BSS handles all radio-related functions and is responsible for managing the radio interface to the mobile station. This includes the modulation and demodulation of signals, encoding, encryption/decryption and error correction. eration and Support System (OSS) 4.3. The OSS is responsible for the ‘maintenance of the network and provides essential operational and business support services. Functionality: (@ Network Management: The OSS includes tools for network operation, maintenance, and optimization. This involves monitoring network performance, fault management, and configuration management. : (® Business Management: It handles billing processes, customer care services and management of subscriber data. () Service Provisioning: The OSS is responsible for provisioning services to new subscribers, managing subscriptions and ensuring quality of service. Subsystem yw BTS \ ' q BTS Hesc }y | HLR|| VLR] |AUC ' { ' ' ' Ms Bie 1 { i 1 BTS ' | [PSTN ' ' A BTs Hasc tt Msc +-{ ISDN ! BTS ; \{_ Data ae ' 1 | Networks ' ' 62 pee Operation Support | i { ' Ms ! Base Station Subsystem Network Switching Subsystem Public Networksa er ill TRUE-EDU'S Wireloss Commuricatin n A BTS | 7 —\ | ‘ te Ne f 1 [BTS | Bsc | + sc i PSTN t ' ' } 1 ¥ ' | } Ss7 1 t \ Val \ [BTS] } v LS v ‘interface 62m ' Abis interface (standardized) 1 (standardized) GSM Radio Air Interface (standardized) Explanation: The first figure shows a GSM architecture. The Mobile Stations connect to BSS over the radio. The BSS consists of many BSCs which connect to a single MSC, each BSC controls up to several BTSs located at different places, Handovers are handled by BSC. The second figure shows Abis interface, which is specified by GSM to be standardized for all manufacturers, but in practice it has subtle differences. It connects BTS to a BSC. It carries traffic and maintenance data. Example of how a call works in GSM: To understand how the GSM network’s components— Switching System, Base Station Subsystem (BSS) and Operation and Support System (OSS)— work together, let’s consider the example of a person, Alice, making a mobile call to another person, Bob, using her GSM-enabled phone. (a) Initiating the Call (Role of BSS): © Alice turns on her mobile phone, which searches for a GSM signal and connects to the nearest Base Transceiver Station (BTS). © The BTS, under the control of the Base Station Controller (BSC), authenticates Alice’s phone using information stored on her SIM card and establishes a radio link. © Once authenticated, her mobile phone is registered in the network, and the BSC updates her location in the network’s Visitor Location Register (VLR). (6) Call Setup (Role of Switching System): * When Alice dials Bob’s number, her phone sends the call request to the BTS. — edgots ne Bs ards this reque: eile =the BTS forwards this request to the BSC, which then sends it to the Mobile Services switching Center (MSC). ‘the MSC queries the Home Location Register (HLR) to determine Bob’s service details and whether he is available, «. ]fBob is available and within a service area, the MSC, using the VLR information, identifies the MSC area where Bob is currently located and establishes a connection path through the network. «) Connecting the Call The MSC responsible for Bob’s current location sends a signal to the BSC controlling the BTS nearest to Bob. This BTS then sends a paging message to Bob’s mobile phone. ¢ Once Bob’s phone responds, the BTS establishes a radio link, and the MSC completes the circuit between Alice and Bob. (@ During the Call: «Throughout the call, the BSS manages the radio path, ensuring optimal signal quality and strength. | [feither Alice or Bob moves into a different cell area during the call, their respective BSCs coordinate a handover to a new BTS seamlessly, without interrupting the | call. (c) Ending the Call and Post-Call Processing (Role of OSS): | © When the call is finished and either party hangs up, the MSC releases the connection, | and the radio links are disconnected. © The call details, including duration and time, are recorded by the MSC. © This information is forwarded to the Operation and Support System (OSS) for billing Purposes. The OSS processes the call data, updating the billing records for both Alice and Bob. Network Management and Maintenance: * Meanie, the OSS consinuously monitors network performance managing any faults ptimizing the network’s operation to ensure smooth service delivery. this example, the BSS handles all radio and mobile station communications, the Switching oversees network operation, M network components enables st ‘Mana; > inten t#8®8 call routing and subscriber services, and the OS tise ang ns 8. This orchestrated operation of ifferent OS “amless mobile communication.= os | | TRUE-EDU'S Wiroloss Communication GSM vs CDMA ys TDMA | Characteristic. [GSM (Global System] CDMA (Code TDMA (Time Division] | for Mobile Division Multiple Multiple Access) | Communications) _| Access) ‘Access Method |Time Division Multi- | Direct-Sequence Spread _ [Time Division - Divides| ple Access (TDMA) | Spectrum Spreads data | frequency bands info time| | = Divides frequency | over the same frequency | slots for different users.| | bands into time slots. | band simultaneously using unique codes for each user, Key Features _ |Supports voice calls, “| Higher capacity; better | Used in 2G networks, SMS and basic data _| security; efficient frequency | supports multiple users services; widely used | use; allows multiple users | simultaneously on the globally; SIM card- | simultaneously on the same | same frequency channel based. frequency channel using _ | by assigning different +2 | unique codes. time slots. Limitations | Limited data capacity | Less global coverage Less efficient for high! technologies. compared to newer initially compared to GSM, though later gained wide- | data rates and initially spread adoption. had limited global cover- age compared to later 2G | technologies like GSM. Global Adopfion| Widely adopted globally, | Initially limited but later | Tnitally limited but later ' especially inEurope | gained broader adoption, gained broader global i and Asia. especially in North adoption. ‘America. lar_ Networks The evolution of cellular networks spans multiple generations, each bringing forth si advancements. This section provides a comprehensive overview of the key features and technological innovations of cellular networks from 1G to the latest SG, highlighting the progression in data rates, latency and network capabilities. Each generation was an improvement over the other and throughout years these technologies have evolved and some are very rarely seen inthe present scenario. (a) First Generation (1G): © Years of Prevalence: 1980s to early 1990s. * Technology: Analog voice communication using Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).ilar Al farily 800 MHz to % ble (Voice only), Range: Typically up to 2-3 Kilometers in url : Analog signal transmissi i Features: Analog sig S1ON With limit * large handsets, no Security of data, poor battery. 4 “al! 00 Miz, ba 1 areas; longer in rural areas ery, uality, no data Services, Examples of 1G networks include NMT (Nordi r * (Advanced Mobile Phone System), Om Mobile Telephone) and AMPS @) Second Generation (2G); « Years of Prevalence: Early 1990s to early 2000s, © Technology: Digital voice encoding (GSM uses TDMA; CDMA). « Frequency Bands: GSM typically at 900 MHz and 1800 MHz: CDMA MHz and 1900 MHz. , around 850 * Data Rates: Up to 14.4 Kbps (GPRS increased to ~ 40-170 Kbps). Range: Similar to 1G, typically 2-3 kilometers in urban areas, Features: (@) Enhanced voice quality, security and capacity compared to 1G. (i) Introduction of basic data services such as MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service). (ii) Lower battery consumption and smaller, more efficient handsets. (iv) Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) became the most widely used 2G standard. SMS (Short Message Service) and (») The introduction of GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) enabled basic internet services, marking the beginning of the mobile internet era. © 2.5G and 2.75 * GPRS (2.56): * Data rates of up to 114 Kbps, but in practice they were often very low. * Itimplemented packet switching, Web Browsing via WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) - * EDGE (2.75G): * Data rates up to 384 Kbps (Theoretically). © Tird Generation (3G): * Years of Prevalence: Early 2000s to 2010s. : Based on UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) / (Wideband CDMA). * Techno} weomeoll TRUE-EDU’S Wireless Communication Frequency Bands: Between 850 MHz and 2100 MHz. Data Rates: 384 Kbps to 2 Mbps; HSDPA (high-speed downlink packet access could achieve 7.2 Mbps or higher. Y Range: Similar to 2G but potentially less due to higher frequencies. Features: Video calling, mobile internet, better spectrum efficiency (e) Fourth Generation (4G): Years of Prevalence: 2009 to present. Technology: LTE and Mobile WiMAX. Frequency Bands: Varies widely from 700 MHz to 2600 MHz and above. Data Rates: over 100 Mbps. Range: 1-2 kilometers in urban areas; greater in rural areas due to fewer obstructions. Features: (i Significantly higher data rates (over 100 Mbps), enabling high-definition video streaming, online gaming and advanced internet services. (i) Enhanced network architecture leading to lower latency, improved spectral efficiency and better overall network performance. (iii) Introduction of advanced technologies like MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) and OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) for better signal quality and speed. (iv) VoLTE (Voice over LTE) introduced, enabling voice calls over the 4G data network with improved call quality. (PD Fifth Generation (5G): . Years of Prevalence: 2019 to present. ‘Technology: Advanced antenna and frequency technologies. Frequency Bands: Wide range including sub-6 GHz and millimeter-wave bands (24 GHz and above). Data Rates: 1 Gbps or higher. Range: Generally less than 4G; mmWave bands have shorter range (around 200 meters). Features: () Ultra-high data rates (over 1 Gbps ), significantly reducing download and upload times. (ii) Extremely low latency (1ms or less), vital for applications like autonomous driving and real-time gaming.99 Cities ang automated Network slicing ilities allow with different qualities of servic (») 5G is expected to enable Tevoluti Ng operat i Perators tg Create Multiple Vittual networks onary applications in fi sachet reall ieee lelds like telemedicine 2G. 3G 1G i ; na SG [ie 2 Digital Enhanced All-Ip Advanced. logy} Analo; Digital Network [Digitat Basic voice Voice and SMS; Higher data iKey High-speed atures communication |introduction of as (limited features |data services {and quality) Ultra-high- Speeds; video |mobite broad. Speed data; calling, mobile band; introdu- low latency; (GPRS, EDGE) internet; intro- ced LTE tech. increased duced UMTS nology capacity; and HSPA support for diverse devices Poor voice qua- |Limited data spe- Higher operatio-/Higher opera-|Limited global lity, no data en- Jeds, primitive int nal costs; more} ctyption, suscep-/ernet access. bandwidth req- tible to interfe- tional costs; coverage; high equires adv-|implementation uired. anced infra- |cost; requires structure. — |new infrastr- fucture. © What technology is associated with Second Generation (2G) cellular networks ? @ LE eM (© 5G (@ UMTS. i) Which "chnology does GSM primarily use for channel access? () Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) (Time Division Multiple Access (© Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) @ None Of the above,- TRUE-EDU’S Wireless Communic ton What is the primary purpose of dividing geographic areas into cells in ce communication? el ug, wwolll qi) (a) To increase signal strength | (b) To enable frequency reuse | (c) To reduce the number of mobile stations (d@) To simplify network architecture. (iv) Inthe context of cellular networks, what does GPRS stand for ? (@) General Packet Radio Services (b) Global Positioning and Routing System. (c) General Public Radio Spectrum. (@ Grouped Packet Routing Service (v) What is the primary purpose of introducing technologies like MIMO and OFDM in Fourth Generation (4G) networks ? (@ Improved voice quality (©) Higher data rates (6) Reduced network latency (@ Enhanced security features. (vi) Which frequency band is commonly associated with Fifth Generation (SG) networks, providing ultra-high data rates ? (@) 500 MHz (b 2.4GHz (c) Sub-6 GHz and millimeter-wave bands (@ 1800 MHz. (vi). The technology that uses a unique code for each user to separate their signals int digital cellular system is known as: (@ FDMA (® TDMA (c) CDMA @ GSM. (ii) What is the main advantage of cell splitting in cellular networks ? (a) Increasing the coverage area (b) Reducing the cost of infrastructure (©) Improving network capacity in high-traffic areas (@ Enhancing the security of communications. | @ is a technology used in Fourth Generation (4G) networks for enabling voice calls over the 4G data network. (ii) Cell splitting in cellular networks is primarily aimed at ....ture yp oe y nSecond Generation (2G) net il) ( is s evn The primary purpose of dividing reogra () +. is a digital cellular syste ” Phic ateas into ‘unique code to separate their signals lls is to ¢ St0 enable mM technique es ere ca from other's, Ch User is assigned 4 @ The range of 5G is Senerally greater thar technologies. n that of 4G due to advanced antenna (ii) The introduction of 3G networks marked the beginning of Video calling and mobile internet services, (ii) 2.5Gand2.75G networks, such as GPRS and EDGE, significantly improve Voice call quality. (i) The primary purpose of dividing Beographic areas into cells in cellular communication is to increase signal strength. (») In 1G cellular networks, voice communication was Primarily based on digital encoding using TDMA. (vi) The introduction of SG networks has elimi (vii) Incellular communication, the term “handoff refers to the an ongoing call from one cell to another as the user moves, (CS) is a technology specific: lar systems, Process of transferring (iti) Personal Communication Service improving voice call quality in celtul The introduction of 5G networks h: communicat Descriptive Questions: © Explain the conce; ally used for (e) as eliminated the need for handoffs in cellular Pt of ‘frequency reuse’ in cellular networks and its Significance, () Label diagram showing the basic cellular system architecture, including elements ike base Stations, mobile Switching centers and connections to the public switched sy Phone network, ©) Viseuss ine Volution of cellular networks from 1G to 5G, highlighting key features iy ap. t*’tcements of each generation, (iv) Jp user e i ‘ight be the ;Petiences dropped calls while moving through acity, what might be the _ Causes, Telated to \ddressed ? Cellular network technology and how can they be addrea7 wlll TRUE-EDU’S Wireless Commu Nica boy Paci () How inas the introduction of CDMA technology impacted the efficiency ang of cellular networks ? Me (vi) Propose a basic design for a cellular network in a suburban area, conside like cell size, frequency reuse and handoff requirements. TINg facto, (vii) Investigate the key differences in network architecture between GSM and CDy, systems, A (vii)_Describe the role of a Mobile Switching Center (MSC) in a cellular network | 5. | Research Based Question: (@ How does the transition from 2G to 3G cellular networks impact voice cal ality and the introduction of data services ? (i) Whatare the key factors influencing the choice of frequency bands inthe deploymey of 4G LTE networks, and how do these choices affect network Performance jy urban and rural areas ? For Solutions to Exercises in thi or visit thls Hake pee) in this Chapter please scan on, QR. code