MODULE NAME: ENGINEERING SURVEYING I

MODULE CODE: DTCE 113

MODULE LEVEL: YEAR I SEMESTER I
MODULE CREDIT: 3 CU
INSTRUCTOR: MUSIIMENTA MILLY ASIIMWE

Detailed Module
Sub module 1: General Introduction
 Objectives of surveying, purpose of surveying, major forms of surveying principal types of surveying,
guidelines of conducting a survey, units of measurements, scale, plan and maps, accuracy and precision,
types of errors and errors in measurements.

Sub module 2: Chain or linear surveying

 Equipment used, standardization correction, horizontal measurements, ranging out, basic survey methods, detail
survey of topography and booking methods, setting out right angles, obstructions in chaining, chain angles, plotting
equipment and plotting the survey.

Sub module 3: Levelling

 Terminologies used; Level line, vertical line, horizontal line, Mean sea level, Ordinance datum,
reduced level, bench mark, OBM, TBM, site datum, Arbitrary bench mark
 equipment used; dumpy, tilting automatic levels, adjustments of a level,
 Methods of field booking: Rise and Fall and Collimation methods of booking, checks on
accuracy, Application of levelling: setting out, sectioning, contouring

Sub module 4: Theodolites

 Classification, main parts of a theodolite, permanent and temporary adjustments, cantering
errors, horizontal and vertical angles measurements.

Sub module 5: Traversing

 Types of traverse (closed, open, loop), Higher and low order, general procedure
 Bearings, north directions,
 Theodolite traversing; choice of stations, included angles, linear measurements, booking, checking
and adjusting results, slope distances
 Traverse computations: purpose latitude and departures, errors and their correction, Bowditch’s method,
Coordinates (Easting & Northing), Plotting, Traverse tables

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Surveying, the first step of starting a new civil engineering project, is a very important branch of civil
engineering. To understand the techniques of surveying a student must carefully study the basics of it. To start
learning surveying one must start with the definition of surveying and its importance.

What is surveying?
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and finally representing them on a sheet of
paper known as plan or map.

According to the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (ACSM),

Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the relative position of
points or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a
usable form, or to establish the position of points or details.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 1

OBJECTIVES OF SURVEYING:
The main objective is to provide students with the basic principles and techniques of construction surveying,
using the common surveying instruments.

PURPOSE OF SURVEYING:
i. Land Surveying:
This is the measuring and recording of the size, shapes and content of any portion of the earth's surface and
drawing out this information to a suitable scale in form of a two dimensional map, plan and / or section. Since
land in three dimensional, land surveying includes leveling; which is the determination of relative heights
(altitudes) of different points, in the area under survey. This information when joined with that of plan enables
a section to be drawn.

ii. Setting Out:

This is the correct positioning of proposed works on the ground, and their dimensional control during the
construction process. It is the opposite of land surveying, where information on the drawn plan is transferred
to the ground with correct positioning relative to already known points.
Add: A third element relating to both "Land Surveying" and "Setting Out" is the calculation of "areas" and
"volumes" required in the cut and fill operations.

MAJOR FORMS OF SURVEYING:

There are two major forms/classification of surveying. These are:
i Plane Surveying;
It deals with short distances on the earth's surface, where the earth's curvature can be ignored. The area handled
is considered as a flat plane figure. Depending on the accuracy required, this area is limited to the upper value
of 300km2.
ii. Geodetic Surveying:
This deals with very long distances and hence large areas on the earth's surface. In this case the earth's curvature
cannot be ignored. The lines are thus curved and areas spherical. While the angle sum in a plane triangle add
up to 180°, that of a spherical triangle does not, due to the spherical excess, i.e. α + β + γ =
180° ± ε, where ε = spherical excess.

PRICIPAL TYPES OF SURVEYING:

With respect to the above two major forms/classification, we arrive at the following principal types of
surveying:
(a) Geodetic surveying:
These are high accuracy surveys, concerned with the shape of the earth and position fixing of control points
for use in carrying out surveys of lower accuracies,
b) Topographical surveys:
This is the location of the main natural and artificial features on the earth (e.g. hills, valleys, lakes, rivers,
mountain, towns, roads, railways, etc).
c) Cadastral surveys:
These are surveys for legal purposes showing and defining legal property boundaries and calculation of areas
involved, leading to the registration of titles.
d) Engineering/ Construction surveying:
This is the carrying out for engineering or building survey works (e.g. roads, railways, tunnels, dams, sewerage,
drainage, buildings, etc), such surveys; involve "setting out" works.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 2

 Principles of Surveying
In general surveying is based on the number of principles or guidelines which are:
 Working from whole to part
 To locate the position of a point by measurement from two reference points
 Consistence of work
 Independent check
 Accuracy required

CONDUCTING A SURVEY:
It is always very bad to have things learnt incorrectly, as it may be very difficult and expensive to have them
unlearnt and relearn them correctly. There should always be some guidelines to ensure success in field survey
work. These are:
1. Equipments:
For a good survey to be done, one must know beforehand what he is supposed to do and using the best method
applicable. He should have all working equipment, examining their suitability, and ensure that they are the
right type for a particular type of job to be carried out, and also in good working condition.
2. Working from whole to part:
The main frame of the job must be carried out first and specific details included on the main frame (never do
the reverse).
NB. There is far less error incurred when a large area is divided into smaller units than when small units are
surveyed independently and an attempt is made to join them together to form the large area.
3. Checks:
Checks should be arranged on all measurements where possible. It is a very bad practice to return to the field
to take more measurements because things do not tie in on the drawing board.
NB. Returning to the field is expensive, frustrating and time wasting.
4. Field notes:

This must be clear and complete. Never trust memory. Survey drawing may be done by a draughtsman who
was not involved in the physical field survey; therefore all information must be on the survey notes and not in
someone else's head.
5. Honesty:
Honesty is very important right from field booking to office calculations and plotting. It is unethical and
unprofessional to cook the survey or alter dimensions so that things tie in on the drawing.
People will have trust on your results and base their work on it, so never betray the trust and you can only be
trust worthy by being honest.
6. Concentration and care:
In order that all the necessary surveys are taken to the required standard and accuracy, and that nothing is
omitted, concentration and care must be maintained in the field at all times by everybody concerned (field
party).
7. Drawing:
Draughtsman ship should be of the highest order, both in the field notes and the final office plotting. All
necessary information ,essential for future reference must be included e.g. drawing scale, unit used, a north
direction, map reference, the date, surveyor's name, draughtsman's name, the drawing no, etc.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS:
Where possible, the system international (SI) unit must be used, although other widely accepted units must
also be taken into account.
1. Units of length:
km, m cm mm inches, feet, yards, miles.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 3

Relationships;
1 km = 1,000 m = 1,000,000 mm.
1 inch = 25.400004nm.
1foot = 0.30480m. 1 yard =
0.91440m.
1 mile = 0.60934 km.
2. Units of area:
m2, km2, hectare, decimal, acre, sq. mile.
Relationships;
1 km2 = 1,000,000m2
1 sq. mile = 2.58999 km2 1
hectare = 10,000 m2 1 hectare =
2.47105 acres. 1 acre = 100
decimals.
1 decimal = 40.4686 m2
3. Units of volume:
m3, km3
Relationships:
1 km3 = 109m3
4. Units of angle: Degree,
radians, grads. Relationships:
360° = 2πrads.
360° = 400 grads.(goons)
2πrads. = 400 grads.

SCALE:
The ratio of a dimension on a drawing to its equivalent full size measurement on site is known as the scale of
a map or plan.
The choice of the scale depends on the purpose and accuracy for which the survey is required.
The scale may range from 1:1 to 1:1,000,000.
Large scales cover smaller areas with more details shown, while small scales cover larger areas, with fewer
details shown. Scales can also vary as follows:
a) Architectural work, assembly drawing and location drawing: may be at 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100,
and 1:200.
b) Civil engineering works, site plans, surveys and layouts: may be at 1:500, 1:1,000, 1:1,250, and 1:2,500.
c) Town, highway and route surveys: may be at 1:2,500, 1:5,000, 1:10,000, 1:20,000, and 1:50,000.
d) Maps: may be at 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, 1:500,000, 1:1,000,000.
The scale of a drawing may be stated as follows:
a) In words, e.g. 1 mm to 500mm.
b) By its representative fraction e.g. 1/500.
c) By a ratio e.g. 1:500.
d) By drawing a line divided into equal parts, each representing the unit used.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drawn Scale

Note:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 4

Although the scale may be written on the sheet (e.g. 1:500) a drawn scale is an advantage. Drawings are subject
to movements/ distortions due to temperature changes, and a drawn scale will always remain consistent with
the drawing.

PLAN AND MAP:

Plans are always drawn at bigger scales with all the details being at a true scale and a true shape.
Maps are always drawn at smaller scales, with the details represented by symbols. Other features are
generalized (e.g. a town of diameter 5km at a scale of 1:100,000 should be represented by a symbol of diameter
5 cm but this will always not be the case and instead a small dot is used), while others are exaggerated beyond
the scale (e.g. a road of width 10m at a scale of 1:100,000 should be 0.1 mm/ but this will be exaggerated
about 10 times and represented as 1 mm).

ACCURACY AND PRECISION:

These are terms used to express, the reliability of measurements.
Accuracy:
This is the degree of closeness or conformity of a measurement to the true value.
Precision:
This is the degree of closeness or conformity of repeated measurements of the same quantity to each other. A
high precision reflects high degree of care and refinements in the instrument and procedure used in taking
measurements.
Example:
Suppose that the true distance between two points X and Y is 500mm.Two people A and B repeatedly took
independent measurements of distance X Y as follows: (A): 502mm, 506mm, 499mm, 503mm, 497mm, Mean
= 501.4mm and Range (506-497) = 9mm.
(B): 508mm, 509mm, 508mm, 508mm, 507mm. Mean = 508mm and Range(509-507) = 2mm.
We can see that A's measurements are closer to the true value than that of B, while B's measurements are closer
to each other than that of A. Therefore A is more accurate than B, while B is more précised than A.
NB It is a good practice to always be précised and accurancy.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 5

2.0 CHAIN / LINEAR SURVEYING:
Chaining is the process of the direct measurement of a line, although not necessarily with a chain.

Equipments for linear measurement:

a) Chains
They are usually in 20m, 25m, 30m and 50m long, Graduated throughout at intervals of
200mm and numbered yellow tallies at every 1m, yellow tallies are replaced by Red tally. (See fig4.5 )
Advantages
It is stronger..
It is easy to read
It is easily repaired in the field
Disadvantages
It is heavy
It may damage some garden plants during field work
It is likely to vary in length (because of bending of links)

b) The steal band.

• Made up of a steel strip, in length of (20, 25, 30, 50 and 100)
m.
• Carried in a four- arm open frame
Advantages
It is easy to read
It is stronger and light in use
Disadvantage
It should be dried and oiled after field work
c) Tapes.
•Made up of steel, synthetic or fiberglass material, in length of
(10, 20, 30, 50 and 100)m.
• Carried in a leather or plastic case.

Equipments for angular measurement:

• Slope measurement: Clinometer and abney level.(see fig 4.5)
• Right angle measurement: Optical square and cross staff.
• Today, we use a theodolite.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 6

HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS:
The drawn plan shows a true projection of the ground to a horizontal plane. All survey- measured distances
must be reduced to the horizontal distance? Using the methods below:
a) Angle of inclination / depression:

If AB is the measured slope distance and the angle of inclination, then the horizontal length AB is given by:
AB = AB'Cosa.

b) Step Chaining:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 7

This is afield method used to obtain horizontal distances directly without using angle measuring instruments.
This is adopted when measuring downhill, or uphill.
Procedure
A team of three people is required. i.e a leader, a follower (surveyor) and an observer. Their duties are as
follows.
i). As the follower holds the zero end of the tape against station A. He a aligns the leader, holding the end
point of the chain/tape on the marks (B,C,D) left by the leader and collecting the arrows.
ii). The leader is to hold the chain horizontally with considerable tension to straighten the chain and avoid
sagging.
iii). The observer is to estimate horizontal position and signal the follower and a leader, when this
horizontal position has been attained. On receiving his signal, the leader drops a drop-arraw from the handle
of the chain, thus transferring the horizontal distance to the ground.(or a plumb-bob or plumbed ranging rod
may be used for the transference.)
The observer notes the length of the first step (A-B) in his book. All steps are measured in similar way until
the whole line has been measured .the summation of these steps gives the required horizontal distance. i.e AB
+ BC + CD
*Care must be taken to keep the tape length short, as this would result into another error (e.g. sagging)

RANGING OUT:
a) On flat ground:
After survey stations have been fixed, straight lines between then are ranged out in order to facilitate chainage.
A surveyor who is standing behind the station pole directs his assistant to insert the ranging poles into line.
The line is always ranged from the furthest station towards the surveyor in order to give a better accuracy.
Ranging rods must be erected vertically, and the assistant must give clear vision to the surveyor by standing
outside the line.

b) On hilly ground:
On hilly ground, the last station point cannot be seen from the first point; this gives problems of lining the
intermediate poles. The problem is handled as below.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 8

Explanation:
Points A and B are the two stations as seen in the plan view, with the hill between them as shown by the side
view.
Two assistants take up positions C and D each side of the hill while facing each other with their poles.
i). Range in C1 with D1 and B (i.e. C1 moves to C2). ii). Range in D1with C2and A (i.e. D1 moves to D2),
iii).Range in C2 with D2and B (i.e. C2moves to C3). The process is repeated until A, D, C & B are in line.

ILLUSTRATION FOR BASIC SURVEY METHODS IN LAND SURVEYING:

 We shall base our illustration on a simple principle that if two points are known, a third point can be located
in relation to them by carrying out various forms of measurements (i.e. linear or angular).
 Suppose that we have line AB as the edges of a straight wall and point C as a vertical electric pole, and that
we are required to provide a two dimensional plan at a suitable scale showing the pole in true relationship to
the wall (fig below)
o C, Electric pole

Solution:
There are many ways of doing this, but it is a prerequisite that in any of the methods, a good sketch be made
upon which the measured data or information are recorded in order to enable us draw the plan.
The methods are as follows:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 9

1. Intersecting Arcs:

(i) Sketch on site (ii) Office plotting

i) On site, measure the horizontal distances AB, AC & BC and note down the information on the sketch.
ii) In the office, draw line AB to scale. Using compasses, with radius set to the scale length AC, mark an arc
from point A; similarly with the radius set to the scale length BC, mark an arc from B. The intersection of
these arcs will locate point C.

2. Offsets:

(i) Sketch on site (ii) Office plotting

i) On site, measure the perpendicular distance from point C to the wall (CD), and measure also AB and AD.
Note this information on the sketch,
ii) In the office, draw line AB to scale, and scale off distance AD. By means of a setsquare or compasses, set
up a right angle at D, and scale off distance DC to locate point C.

3 Radiation / Polar - Coordinates:

(i) Sketch on site (ii) Office plotting

i) On site, measure the horizontal lines AB and AC, and the horizontal CAB.
Note the information on a sketch,
ii) In the office, draw line AB to scale.
iii) Using a protractor or an adjustable setsquare, set off
iv) CAB and finally scale off distance AC to locate point C.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 10

4. Intersection / Triangulation:

i) Sketch on site (ii) Office Plotting

i) On site, measure the horizontal length AB and horizontal and CAB and ABC. Note down the information
on the sketch,
ii) In the office, draw line AB to scale. By means of a protractor or an adjustable set square, measure angles
CAB and ABC. The intersection of lines AC and BC will locate point C.

5. Trilateration:

Sketch on site

For high order work, i.e where much accuracy is required, all the sides i.e. AB, BC, and AC are measured,
with angles CAB and ABC also measured. When plotting, after locating point C, say using length AB and
angles CAB and ABC, lengths AC and BC on the plan are scaled and compared with the ones that were taken
from the field, these must be the same.

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES USED IN LINEAR SURVEYING:

a) Reconnaissance / Preliminary Inspection:

This is the time when the site to be surveyed is visited by the surveyor, so as to have the real picture of the
area in mind. It is during the visit that the most suitable way of doing the work is decided. The surveyor
prepares a sketch that shows the main frame work of the survey, with the best arrangements for the survey
lines. A means of overcoming some obstacles to measurements is taken care of during this visit.
b) Survey Stations: A, B, C, D:
These are points at the beginning or end of a chain line. They are usually marked with wooden pegs and given
a reference letter or number.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 11

c) Survey Lines: AB, BC, CD, AD, AC, BC:
These are the main chain lines between survey stations, which are measured.
d) Well-Conditioned Triangles:
All triangles formed should be "well-conditioned", i.e. they should not be too acute or too obtuse but roughly
equilateral and kept as few as possible.
e) Offsets: oi, xy:
These are measurements at right angle to the survey lines; they are always measured either from the boundary
or any detail point.
f) Offset Area
This is the area lying between the survey lines and the boundaries of the site.
g) Ties:
These are lines used in pairs to locate some point of detail at an angle other than 900,
e.g. the center of a tree fromtwo known points on the survey line.

Note:
Any shape can be divided into triangles and the area of each triangle calculated from anyof the following:
Area = :/2. b.h
Area = 1/2 .a.b.SinC
Area = V[S(S~a)(S-b)(S-c)], where S = (a+b+c)/2

DETAIL SURVEY OF TOPTOGRAPHY:

The term detail, deals with features above, on and below the ground level.
• Hard Details: These are constructed (man made) features, such as buildings, walls, roads, railway lines,
etc.
• Soft Details: These are natural features, such as rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.
• Overhead Details: These are features above the ground level, such as power and telephone lines.
• Underground Details: These are features below the ground level, such as water pipes, sewer lines,
underground cables, etc.
Details are represented by some standard or conventional signs.
NB. The amount and type of detail varies with the scale of the drawing and the intended use of the final plan.
• Small scales cover larger areas, but with less detail shown, while big scales cover smaller areas, but with
more detail shown.
" Details are based on a frame work of control points, which must be established on the ground before the
details can be located (mainly survey lines). Details are then located by means of offsets and ties.

ERRORS:
Sources of Errors in chains and tapes &Precautions to rectify them.
No measurement is ever exact in surveying being linear or angular. Any measurement will always contain
some form of error. We have to, if possible eliminate or minimize as Much as we can, any form of error.

Sources of error in a chain

 Bending of the links
 Temperature
 Removal of some rings during adjustment and thus affecting the total length of the chain.
 Clogging of rings with mud.
 Due to sag, when hanging over unsupported tape length.
 The chain becoming to long due to wearing or flattening of rings or end of the links.

Sources of error in a tape

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 12

 Elongation by pull or due to temperature.
 Bellying out of the tape due to strong wind

Precautions
 Every day before commencing work the chain and tape should be measured and corrected.
 At the end of the every work, the chain or tape should be measured again, inorder to determine its elongation
due to pull, etc

Errors are classified into three: Gross, Systematic and Random errors.
1). Gross Errors :( Mistakes or blunders)
These errors occurring as a result of blunders or mistakes are due to carelessness
of the observer (Surveyor) and his assistant. If unchecked can lead to production of faulty plan.
Examples:
a) Incorrect booking of a measured length, (e.g. booking 6.520m instead of 16.520m).
b) Incorrect reading of the scale or reading a wrong scale.
c) Pointing to the wrong survey target.
d) Omitting an entire chain length in booking

*Field procedures designed to detect mistakes or gross errors, these are:

a) Careful checking of all pointing to the survey targets.
b) Taking multiple readings on scales.
c) Verifying recorded data by re-reading scales.
d) Repeating entire measurements independently.
2). Systematic Errors: [cumulative or constant errors].
Systematic errors are Errors, which occur in the same direction and tend to add up or cumulate and seriously
affect the accuracy of the chaining operations. These arise from known sources and can be eliminated.
Systematic errors occur according to some deterministic system which when known can be expressed by some
functional relationship. E.g. The relationship between the expansion of a steel tape and temperature.
The system underlying systematic error depends on the observer, instrument used and physical or
environmental conditions at the time of measurements.

 Observational factors include: Personal unfairness, natural senses of vision and hearing.
 Instrumental factors include imperfect construction of scales, imperfect instrument adjustment.
 Physical and environmental factors include Temperature, pull, terrain or slope, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, earth's curvature, etc.
An example of systematic error is when the tension applied to the tape is being different from that during
calibration.
Systematic errors are detected by calibration and minimized by applying appropriate corrections to actual
measurements.

3). Random Errors (Accidental Or Human error): [Have compensative effect]. Random errors are errors,
which are raise from luck of perfection of the human eye and method of using equipment. Random errors are
likely to occur in either direction (+ve or –ve)and hence tend to cancel out. i.e (tend to be compensatory).
After all blunders have been detected and removed, and the measurements corrected for all known systematic
errors, the errors that still remain in the measurement is known as "random error".
Examples of Random error.
 Imperfect alignment ( inclined position of arrow relative to chain instead of being vertical)
 Variable tension in the chain
 In correct holding of the chain.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 13

They do not entirely disappear but they are generally small and can be ignored. They do not follow physical
laws like systematic errors.
Summary:
The surveyor's effort" should always be directed at eliminating mistakes, keeping systematic errors to a
minimum and being aware of the possibility of random errors in order to achieve the required accuracy.

ERRORS IN CHAINING OR TAPING:

These can be outlined as follows:
• Incorrect length of tape.
• Tape not taut and properly aligned.
• Sag in the tape.
• Expansion or contraction due to temperature changes.
• Arrows in properly inserted during step chaining.
• Incorrect reading of tape.
• Incorrect booking. Insufficient allowance for slope.

TESTING THE CHAIN LENGTH (STANDARDIZATION & SLOPE CORRECTION):

After being used for long, and under different hard field conditions, the chain/tape length may be different
from that at which it was standardized.
It is necessary to test the chain/tape from time to time against a "permanent length" or" standardized length".
NB: A too short tape leads to a longer reading being recorded, while a too long tape leads to a shorter reading
being recorded.

CORRECTIONS
*If a tape is found to be incorrect after measurements have been taken, the following formulae will correct the
error:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 14

Example2: A line was measured as 45.800m with a tape 20.200m long. What was the True length of the line?

ii). CORRECTION FOR AREA:

If an, incorrect tape length is used to determine area, the applied correction would be:
True area= X [actual tape length used/nominal tape length]2 X measured area

Example: A plot was measured by a tape of 20.200m long and the area computed as
1.632 hectares. What was the true area of the plot?
Solution:

True area = [20.200m/20.000m]2 X1.632 Ha = 1.665 Ha.

iii) CORRECTION FOR VOLUME

iv) CORRECTION FOR SLOPE

All distances measured on any survey work, are slope length’s and must be converted into plan length before
plotting.
Slope length is long than plan length, hence a constant error will be made by ignoring the inclination.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 15

Where: Li = incorrect length measured (slope length)
Lc = Correct length required (plan length)

Example1: the fig below shows a straight line ABCD which has three distance changes of gradient along its
length. Each gradient was obtained by Abney level. Calculate the plan length of the line AD, given the
following field results.

Example2: A tape believed to be 50.000m long , was used to measure the sides of a plot whose true area is
known to be 8.25Acres, and its area computed as 8.42Acres.The same tape was then used to measure the
length of line PS in bays as shown in table below
Line Slope length(m) Slope Angle
PQ 44.32 +3030,
QR 60.00 -4005,
RS 83.45 +7000,

Calculate:
i). Horizontal Length PS as measured.
ii). True horizontal length PS.
iii). Change in height from P to S as measured.
iv). True change in height from P to S.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 16

v). Uniform gradient of line PS in the form of 1 in N.

Solution:

TL=50.000m, AL= ?, TA= 8.25AC. and MA= 8.42Ac.

8.25
• =50*(√(8.420))

AL =49.493m
Horizontal distance as measured (PS)
= 44.32cos3030/ + 60.00cos4005/ + 83.45cos7000/
= 44.237 + 59.848 + 82.828 =186.913m

Change in height from P to S as measured

= 44.32sin3030, - 60.00sin4005, + 83.45sin7000,
=+ 8.603m.

True change in height =( 49.493/50.000) X 8.603 = 8.504m.

Gradient = Y/X = 8.504/185.0177 = 1 in 21.756.

i) CORRECTION FOR PULL

Cp = L(Ff-Fs)/AE
Where:L=Length of the tape(chain)
A = Cross-sectional Area of a chain
E = Young’s modulus of Elasticity
Ff = Pull applied in the field

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 17

Fs = Pull applied at standard station

Vi) CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE

Ct = Lα(Tf – Ts)
Where: α =coefficient of thermal expansion
Tf = Temperature in the field
Ts = Temperature at standard station,
L = Measured length.

Vii) CORRECTION FOR SAG

While measuring on unevenly sloping ground, tapes are suspended at shorter length and horizontal distances
are measured. This technique eliminates errors due to measurement along slopes, but necessitates correction
for sag. Hence, measured length is more than actual length. Thus the correction is –ve. The correction, which
is difference between the length of catenary and true length is given by

Where, W = the weight of the tape of span length

P = the pull applied and L = measured length
It may be noted that if pull is more than standard pull, the correction for pull is +ve, while correction for sag
is always –ve.

Example1. A 20 m tape was used for measuring a line at an average temperature of 65º F. The measured
distances on the ground and slope of the ground are as given below:
2º 18′ for 125 m
3º 30′ for 250 m
1º 42′ for a distance of 170 m
If the temperature at which tape was standardised is 80º F, find the true length of the line.
Take α = 6.2 × 10–6/ºF.

Solution:
Measured horizontal distance = ΣL cos θ
= 125 cos 2º 18′ + 250 cos 3º 30′ + 170 cos 1º 42′
= 544.367 m
Temperature correction
Ct = L α (Tf – Ts)
= 544.367 × 6.2 × 10–6 (65 – 80)
= – 0.051 m
Correct horizontal length
= 544.367 – 0.051 = 544.316 m Ans.

Example 2 To measure a base line, a steel tape 30 m long, standardised at 15º C with a pull of 80 N was used.
Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time of measurement is 25º C and the pull exerted
is 150 N. Take Young’s modulus E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and coefficient of thermal expansion α = 11.2 ×10–6/°C.
Cross-sectional area of tape is 8 mm2.
Solution:
l = 30 m, α = 11.2 × 10–6/ºC, Ts = 15ºC, Ps= 80 N, Tf = 25ºC, Pf = 150 N

Correction for temperature

Ct = l α (Tf – Ts)
= 30 × 11.2 × 10–6 (25 – 15)
= 3.360 × 10–3 m

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 18

Correction for pull
Cp = l(Pf- Ps )/AE
=30 (150 - 80)/ 8 x 2 × 105
= 1.3125 × 10–3 m

[Note: Unit of AE comes out to be Newton only, if A is in cm2 or mm2 and E in N/cm2 or N/mm2].

∴ Total correction for temperature and pull

= Ct + Cp = 3.360 × 10–3 + 1.3125 × 10–3
= 4.6725 × 10–3 m per chain length

Example 3: Calculate sag correction for a 30 m steel tape under a pull of 80 N, if it is suspended in three
equal spans. Unit weight of steel is 78.6 kN/m3. Area of cross-section of tape is 8 mm2.

Solution:
Length of each span = 10 m
W = wt. of taper per span length
= 78.6 × 10 × (8 × 10–6)
= 6288 × 10–6 kN = 6.288 N

[Note: 1 mm2 = (0.001)2 m2 = 1 × 10–6 m2]

P = 80 N L = 10 m

∴ Correction for each span

= 2.574 × 10–3 m

∴ Correction for three spans

= 3 × 2.574 × 10–3 m
= 7.722 × 10–3 m Ans.

BOOKING THE SURVEY:

This is done by means of sketches and measurements while in the field
A clear format of booking survey details must be adopted, in order to avoid confusion at a later stage. The
booking is done by a surveyor in a field book, normally with rainproof leaves, each page ruled up in the
centre.
This enables the surveyor to make his entries forward in the same direction, which he is walking.
Traditionally, two booking methods are used.
i). A single line method: One line is drawn through the centre of the page and it represents the survey line.
ii). A double line method: Two lines 12 mm apart are drawn through the center of the page and it represents
the survey line.
NB. Choice of method to be used is purely personal.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 19

Entries start at the bottom of the page, i.e. from station A to B. Details that are on the right hand side of the
line are booked on the right hand side of the page and vice versa. Details are picked by offset measurements
or using ties. Only continuous lengths from station A are recorded between the double lines. No attempt is
made to draw the sketch to scale. Dimensions around the buildings are also shown and distinguished from
other measurements by being inserted in brackets.
Because the double line represents a survey line, note how a feature (e.g. path edge is sketched). It strikes the
left hand line exactly opposite where it leaves the right hand line, with the chainage written between;
The following data must be included in the complete field records:
• A sketch of the area showing the location of the stations and chain or survey lines.
• A prismatic compass magnetic bearing of one line so that the survey can be oriented.
• The name, location and date of the survey.
• The name of the surveyor who took the job.

SETTING OUT A RIGHT ANGLE BY TAPE ONLY:

(some of the methods used to construct an offset)
1. The theory of the "3-4-5" triangle:
If we set a triangle in the field such that the sides are in the proportion of 3:4:5 units, e.g. 6m: 8m: 10m, one
of the angles will be a right angle and will be opposite the longest side.

Task: It is required to set off from point A a line at right angel to the survey line
• Set the unit to be used in the proportion of 3:4:5 (i.e. 6m:8m:10m)
• Mark point C on line P1P2. 8m from point A.
• Fix the Om graduation at A and the 16thm graduation at C (i.e. 6 + 10)
• Then hold the 6th m graduation from A and pull both sides of the tape taut, to pin at point B.
• Join point A to point B. A right angle is then set at A; i.e. line AB will be perpendicular to the survey line
P1P2

2. From Equilateral triangle:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 20

Task: It is required to set off from point O a line at right angle to survey line
Mark two points A and B on line P1P2 such that OA = OB= say 5m, implying that AB 10m.
• Fix the 0 m graduation of a tape at point A and the 20th m graduation at point B.
• Then hold the 10th m graduation form A and pull both sides of the tape taut, to pin at point C.
• Still holding the 10th m graduation, pull the tape and across line P1P2: and again pull both sides of the tapes
taut, to pin at point D.
• Join point C to point D. Line CD will pass through O and at right angle to the survey line.

3 From Equal arcs:

Task: It is required to set off from point O a line at right angle to the survey line

• Mark two points A and B on line P1P2, such that OA = OB.

• Swing equal arcs from A and B to locate points C and D.
• Join point C to point D. Line CD will pass through O and at right angle to the survey line P1P2
4 Estimation by eye,
For short distances (offsets) the end of the tape is held at the point to be located and the right angle is estimated
by eye .
5 Swing the tape, to obtain minimum distance
The tape is swung with its zero as the centre about the point and the minimum reading at which it crosses the
tape / chain is noted. This occurs when the tape is perpendicular to the tape.
6 Construction of a semi-circle
Run the tape from D (Feature) to any point A on the tape.
Bisect AD at O. With centre OD and OA as radius strike an arc to cut the tape line AB at C. Then angle ACD
is 900 being the angle in a semi –circle.

OBSTACLES: (obstructions in chaining)

An obstacle is defined as obstruction (object) which blocks the direct measurement of a line or its ranging.
Although the preliminary reconnaissance is undertaken to reduce this problem to a minimum, there are
nevertheless occasions when the field work is unavoidably obstructed or interrupted. Obstacles may be inform
of a building, small hill, a pond, a river, depressions, etc.
Special methods should be adopted so that the line may be continued.
Types of obstacles which arise are grouped under:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 21

a) Those which prevent ranging but not chaining (Chainage free, vision obstructed eg a hill)
b) Those which prevent chaining only but not ranging.(Chainage obstructed vision free eg pond ,a river)
c) Those, which prevent both chaining and ranging eg a building

1. Chainage free, vision obstructed:

This is as in the case of a rising ground. The most common occurrence is when the line has to be continued
up and over a rising ground, e.g. over a hill. The only solution is to continue ranging out and chaining in a
straight line. This has already been covered under "Ranging out on a hilly ground". Today, for more accurate
work, the line is continued by use of a theodolite (as seen later).
2. Chainage obstructed vision free:
This is as in the case when a line meets a wide rive or a pond. There is no difficulty in ranging out beyond
the obstruction, but laying down the chain or tape to take measurements is impossible. Several methods are
available to overcome this problem.
(a) Parallel diversion:

In this method, a line is laid out parallel to the part of the line, which has been obstructed.
 Erect perpendiculars at A and B on either side of the dam, and mark points C and D, such that
AC = BD.
 Measure line CD, DC should be parallel and equal to AB
 Distance P1P2 = P1A + CD + BP2.

c) Right angled triangle:

 Setline AD outside the dam.

 Erect a perpendicular line from a convenient point C on line AD to meet line P1P2 at point B.
 Distance P1P2 = P1A + [AC2 + BC2]1/2 + BP2

(b) Similar triangle:

 Set line AC and BC.

 Mark point E on line AC produced, such that AC = CE, also mark point D on line
 BC produced such that BC == CD.
Triangle ECD is equal to triangle ABC in all respects.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 22

Distance P1P2=P1A + DE + BP2

(d) Use of triangles (classic case):

A line may need to be ranged beyond a very long obstruction such as deeper river or a busy road. Here
physical measurement of the line is impossible although access to the far side of the obstruction is available.

• Mark point A on line

• Set line P1P4 and mark points C and D such that AC = AD.
• Erect perpendiculars at C and D to meet line P1P2 at B and E respectively.
• Distance P1P2= P1E + 2(EA) + BP2 = P1 A +EA + BP2.

3. both chainage and vision obstructed

i). Use parallel Diversion C D

p2
P1 AB House

In this method, a line is laid out parallel to the part of the line, which has been obstructed.
 Erect perpendiculars at A and B on either side of the dam, and mark points C and D, such that AC = BD.
 Measure line CD, DC should be parallel and equal to AB
 Distance P1P2 = P1A + CD + BP2.

PLOTTING THE SURVEY:

A person plotting the survey needs to -have a thorough understanding of the principles on which the fieldwork
was based. [Read on plotting equipment’s].
DETAIL:
The detail should be plotted in the same order in which it was taken in the field.
COMPLETING THE PLAN:
• Once the plotting has been completed in fine pencil, the details are drawn in carefully. This is what is
termed "lining in", and done in black ink.
Conventional symbols should be added appropriately.
• The offset points at the boundary should not be simply joined by straight lines, unless the boundary
between them is a straight line.
• The details are finally traced out, leaving out the construction or plotting marks.
• The following additional information must be 'included on the finished drawing: Title (printed at the
bottom edge), date, surveyor's name, draughtsman's name, client's name, scale, office name, job number,
sheet number etc.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 23

3.0 LEVELING
Definition of Leveling:
Leveling is the process of measuring the differences in elevation between two or more points.
OR Leveling is the process by which relative heights of a number of points are determined.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN LEVELING:

1. DATUM:
This can be any reference surface above which heights of other points can be determined. In practice, this is
not a plane surface, but is slightly irregular surface that approximates to mean sea level, and is everywhere
perpendicular to the direction of gravity.

NOTE:
There are many reference datum used, and one has to define the one being used. Eg in Britain we have the
Ordnance Datum (OD), which passed through the mean sea level determined by observation at Newlyn in
Cornwall.

DATUM THAT EXIST IN UGANDA.

i. The Original Uganda Railway Datum.
ii. The New Kenya & Uganda Datum, 0.503 m below (i).
iii. Kenya Survey Department Datum, 0.357m higher than (i).
iv. Uganda Standard Datum (USD), which is based on the Khartoum Datum, assumed to be 360m above mean
sea level at Alexandria.
2. ASSUMED DATMUM:
This is any datum chosen to avoid inconveniences and hardship that may arise in relating the work to the
Ordinance Datum. Examples are as seen already in Uganda.
3. BENCH MARK (BM):
These are fixed points of known heights above the reference datum used, from which heights of other points
above datum can be determined.
4. TEMPORARY BENCH MARK (TBM):
This is a benchmark set up by a surveyor for his own use for a particular task.
5. ARBITRARY BENCH MARK (ABM):
This is a BM that is not related to any datum, and it is always assigned any convenient value say 100m above
what nobody knows.

6. HORIZONTAL LINE
A horizontal line at a point is that line which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at that point.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 24

7. A LEVEL LINE;
A level line is that of uniform height relative to the mean sea level (i.e reference datum). Because the mean
sea level is curved, a level tine is also curved, and everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity.

8. LEVEL SURFACE:
This is a surface that is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
It therefore follows that a level line ties on a level surface.
NOTE: A level surface is not a plane surface but a spherical surface.
9. LINE OF COLLIMATION (LOC):
This is a true horizontal line of sight, which passes through the optical centre of the telescope of the level.
10. HEIGHT COLIMATION (HOC);
This is the height of the line of collimation above the reference datum.

11. PLANEOF COLLIMATION:

Is the plane generated by rotating the L.O.C about the vertical axis of the telescope.
12 REDUCED LEVEL (RL)
Is the height of a point relative to the reference datum.
13. BACK SIGHT (BS):
Is the first sight or reading taken for every instrument setup.
It is taken from point of known/assumed height (RL) and at a change point
14. FORE SIGHT (FS):'
Is the last reading taken for every instrument set up.
It is taken at a change point and finally at the end of leveling operation.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 25

15. INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (IS)
Is any sight or reading take between" a BS and a FS.
16. CHANGE POINT (CP):
This is a point where we take both a FS and a BS with two different consecutive instrument positions
respectively. The foot of the staff remains at the same CP until when the two readings FS and BS are taken.
17. Mean sea level (MSL) is the mean level of the sea as determined at a selected place from observations
over a period of time, used as a datum surface for leveling work. ORMSL is the level datum line taken as the
reference plane.

EQUIPMENT USED IN LEVELING.

The equipment used in leveling are as follows: A level, a staff and a tape.
A LEVEL
A level is an instrument used in the process of measuring the differences in elevation between two or more
points.
Levels are categorized into four groups.
i). Dumpy level
ii). Tilting level
iii).Automatic level
iv).Digital level

1.DUMPY LEVEL:
A dumpy level or automatic level is the leveling instrument used to establish or check points in the same
horizontal plane. It is used in surveying and building with a vertical staff to measure height differences and
so transfer, measure and set heights.

Fig .Show a typical Dumpy Level Permanent adjustment to the dumpy level
For a dumpy level to function properly, it is necessary that the axis of rotation of a telescope is vertical when
the bubble is central bubble. And the line of collimation is perpendicular to this axis.
The following tests i.e. Adjustment of a bubble tube and Adjustment of line of sight, will reveal whether or
not a correction is necessary, if so the adjustments is referred to, as permanent adjustment,, though not
permanent .

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 26

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF ADUMPY A LEVEL: (Adjustment of a bubble tube)
The distinguishing feature is that the telescope is rigidly attached to an axis which rotates in a sleeve (part of
a tribuach).
The process by which the instrument is made in a suitable state on its tripod stand and ready to make
observations is termed temporary adjustments'
i) Setting up the tripod:
The tripod must be firmly placed on a stable ground, with its top family set in a horizontal plane.

Figure show typical tripod stand of a leveling instrument

 On a flat ground, the length of the legs should be equal, and their ends on the ground
equidistant from each other,
 While on slopping ground, one leg will be shorter and point uphill, while the other two
legs point downhill at equal intervals, (fig below)
• Remove the level from its case and secure it firmly on the tripod head.

There is captive bolt to be screwed up into the underside of the instrument. It is frustrating when setting up
and you find that the level and tripod do not marry.
ii) Leveling:
The level shall have three foot screws, (fig below).

a) The telescope is placed parallel to two fort screws (A) and (B) in (a) above.
• The bubble is centered using these two screws (A) and (B)
• To achieve the centering, both screws (A) and (B) are turned simultaneously at the same speed but in
opposite directions.
• It is to be noted that the bubble moves in the same direction are screw (A) (i.e left thumb).
b) When the bubble is centered turn the telescope through an angle of 900 i.e to the direction of screw (C).
Check that the bubble is centered while in this position using screw (C).
c) Turn the telescope back to its initial position (a), and re-level if necessary and then turn it through an angle
of 180° as in fig (c) above.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 27

If the bubble remains centered in this position, then it is said to have “traversed" and the telescope can be
pointed to any direction and ready for use.
But if the bubble does not traverse, then repeat the whole process again with a lot of care. If the bubble does
not traverse this time, then there should be some permanent adjustment problem.

(iii) Parallax Removal:

The process of parallax removal is the same for all telescopes used in different levels.
• The telescope is focused to a light background (i.e blue sky or white sheet of paper).
• The eyepiece ring is then turned until when the reticule pattern is seen black and sharp.

Target observation
• Once the instrument has been set, leveled and parallax removed, the next stage is to sight to the target.
• Aim at the target and lock the instrument.
• Focus it using the focusing ring in order to have a clear image of the target.
• Bisect the target properly with the cross hair using the slow motion screw.
• Take the cross centre hair reading

ADJUSTMENT OF LINE OF SIGHT OF A DUMPY LEVEL (Two peg test)\

a) Choose two points A & B on affair flat ground 50m distant.
b) Set up the instrument mid way between the pegged points A & B and take readings on a staff held at each
point in turn

Since A & B are equidistant from the telescope, the error in the staff reading ҽ will be the same at each station,
hence if the staff readings observed are a1& b1
True difference in level between A & B, ∆H1 =(a1+ ҽ) –( b1+ ҽ)
= a1 + ҽ – b1 – ҽ
= a1-b1

a) Set up the instrument in a new position not more than about 3m from B, but far enough from B to be able
to focus a staff held at that point.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 28

Staff readings a2 & b2 at A and B respectively are observed.
Apparent difference ∆H2 =a2- b2
If a1-b1 ≠ a2-b2 then the diaphragm must be raised or lowered by use of capstan screw until the line of sight
makes a reading at A & B of :
a2 –b2 = a1- b1
therefore a2 = a1+b2 – b1
At B because the proximity of instrument and staff the error is usually negligible. The line of collimation
should now be perpendicular to the vertical axis
Example1.Aleveling instrument was set up exactly mid way between two pegs P & q laying 70m apart and
the following readings were obtained to a staff held vertically on the pegs in turn.

Reading to p is 0.765, reading to q is 1.395. when the instrument was set up near peg P , the following
information was obtained. The reading to p is 1.315 and reading to q is 1.858.
Calculate the collimation error of the instrument and express it as angle of elevation or depression.

Solution: P is higher than q

The true difference in level between p & q ∆H1 =(1.395-0.765) =0.63m
Apparent difference in level between p & q ∆H2 = ( 1.858 – 1.315) = 0.543m
Collimation error = Apparent difference – True difference
= 0.63-0.543 =0.087m

θ =tan−1( 0.087/70) = 0.07120

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 29

1. TILTING LEVEL:

Unlike the dumpy level, the tilting level needs only the vertical axis to be approximately vertical for the
instrument to be in good adjustment. This is achieved by centering the small circular bubble at each instrument
set up using ball & socket joint or foot screws. Before a reading is taken, the line of sight must be made
horizontal by centering the main bubble using tilting screw. The telescope has no rigid attachment with the
tribuach.

Permanent adjustment of the tilting level

There is only one permanent adjustment necessary for this instrument to be in good adjustment i.e the bubble
tube axis must be made parallel to the telescope axis so that when the bubble is central, the line of sight is
horizontal.
Two peg test of a tilting level
When the bubble of the level is centered, it is not a guarantee that line of sight is horizontal.
It is always good to carry out the two-peg test to find the presence and magnitude of the collimation error ҽ.
This is done as below in Fig1 and Fig2

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 30

About Fig 1:
 On a relatively flat site establish two pegs A and B about 60m apart and set up the instrument at I1 ,appoint
half – way between them.(such that d1= d2=d=30m)
 After careful leveling and focusing , sight on staff held vertically at A and record reading a1 .repeat with
the staff held at B and record reading b1
 Assuming the line of collimation is not horizontal but inclined at an angle ҽ . Then ҽ will be the collimation
error of the instrument in radians.
 Let the true difference in level between A and B be ∆H
 ∆H = (a1-d1e) – (b1-d2e)
= [a1-d1e- b1 +d2e] But d1 = d2 =d
∆H = (a1-b1)………………………..eqn*
 Equation * shows that the collimation error e does not affect the true difference in height, provided the
instrument is set mid-way.
About Fig2:
 The instrument is shifted to I2, the distance d3 away from B on Line AB produced. Such that d1=d2=d3=30m.
 Reading a2 and b2 are recorded at A & B respectively.
 Let the true difference in level between A & B be ∆H
 ∆H=[a2-(d1+d2+d3)e] – [b2-d3e] but d1=d2=d3=d
=a2-d1e-d2e-d3e-b2 +d3e
= (a2-b2)-(d1+d2)e
= (a2-b2)-2de…………………………....eqn**
 By equating eqn * and **
 a1-b1 = a2 –b2-2de.
 2de =( a2-b2) –(a1-b1)

If e ≤ │0.000005│ then the instrument is good enough to be used.

If e is big , with instrument still at I2 the line of sight is lowered down , using adjusting screw until a reading
a2-(d1+d2 +d3)e is observed on a staff at A. this will however cause the bubble to move to the centre. This
procedure is repeated until when the absolute value is e≤│0.000005│.

Note: if e is +ve , it implies that the line of sight is inclined up wards and if e is –ve ,then it implies that line of
sight is inclined down wards.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 31

Question:1
a) Explain how the presence of the collimation error e can be detected in a two peg test operation.
b) A, B and C are three respective points on the line, such that AB = 90m and BC =70m.
A leveling instrument is set up at I1 and I2 on line AB, such that AI1 =30m, and I2B = 30m. The data in table
below was then collected.
Instrument station Staff station Staff reading(m) Remarks
I1 A 2.040 UP Right
I1 B 1.881 UP Right
I2 A 3.222 UP Right
I2 B 3.183 UP Right
I2 C 3.003 Inverted

i). Determine the collimation error e present in the instrument.

ii). Calculate the true change in height from A to C.
Solution (b)

i). At I1,
 ∆HAB = (2.040-30e) – (1.881-60e)
= 0.159 + 30e……………………. (i)
At I2
 ∆HAB = (3.222-60e) – (3.183-30e)
= 0.039 - 30e……………………….. (ii)
By equating equation ( i) & (ii):
0.159 + 30e = 0.039 - 30e
60e = - 0.120
e = - 0.002 rads ( line incline downwards)
ii). ∆HAC = (3.222-60e) – -(3.003 + 100e)
= 3.222+3.003 + 40e
= 6.225 – 40 x 0.002

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 32

= +6.145m.

2. AUTOMATIC LEVEL:

There is now a great range of automatic level in the market. The spirit level is no longer used to set the
horizontal L.O.C. If the standing axis is set approximately vertical in a similar manner to that of tilting level,
the system of compensations automatically corrects for any slight variation from the vertical.

3. DIGITAL LEVEL & ASTAFF

The digital level has the same optical and mechanical components as a
normal automatic level. However, for the purpose of electronic staff reading a
beam splitter is incorporated which transfers the bar code image to a detector.
The data processing is carried out within the instrument and the data are
displayed in a simple format. The measurement process is initiated by a very
light touch on a measure button.
A keypad on the eyepiece face of the instrument permits the entry of further
numerical data and pre-programmed commands. The data can be stored and
transferred to a computer when required.
The instrument may have an interface, which permits external control, data
transfer and power supply.

The levelling staff of Digital level.

The staff is usually made from a synthetic material, which has a small coefficient of expansion. The staff may
be in one or more sections. On one side of the staff is a binary bar code for electronic measurement, and on the
other side there are often conventional graduations in metre.

LEVELLING STAVES:
a) There are three basic types of staves: Namely: wooden ,Metallic and synthetic.
WOODEN STAVES:
 Made from well-seasoned mahogany.
• do not suffer from temperature variation.
 Affected by water.
b) METAL STAVES:
• Made from aluminum alloy.
• Do suffer from temperature variation.
• Not affected by water.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 33

STAFF ACCESSORIES:
a) STAFF BUBBLE:
This is a circular spirit level, attached to the staff in order to enable the staff to improve on the verticality of
the staff while observation is being made.

b) STAFF HOLDER:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 34

These are clamped to the staff to make holding easier especially in windy condition.
CHANGE PLATE:

This is a triangular steel plate, used where a change point occurs on a soft ground to
form a stable base.

TAPES:
There are mainly two types, namely steel tapes and fiberglass tapes

FIELD PROCEDURE IN LEVELING:

It is required to find the reduced levels of points A, B, C,D & E. Leveling started from (BM) and closed at
(TBM).
1. The level is set up at a convenient position I1, and a BS of 2.191m taken to the BM.
2. The staff is moved to points A and B, and the ISs 2.507m & 2.325 m taken respectively.
3. Because of the nature of the ground, a change point is needed in order to reach point D. The staff is therefore
moved to point C (CP) and a FS reading of 1.496m taken.
4. With the staff still at C (CP), the instrument is moved to a new station I2and a BS reading of 3.019m is
taken to a staff at C.
5. The staff is moved to point D and an IS reading of 2.513m taken.
6. The staff is then moved to point E (CP) and a FS reading of 2.811m taken.
7. Finally the level is moved to station Is and a BS of 1.752m taken to E and a FS of 3.817m taken to the TBM.
*The first and last staff positions are always at points of known heights.
*This is to allow to detect the "closing error".

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 35

*When booking leveling in more than one page, the last reading in a page should be booked as a FS and the
same point repeated as a BS reading in the next page.
BOOKING & REDUCED LEVEL CALCULATIONS:
There are two known methods for booking and deduction of the readings, namely:
i. The "Rise and fall" method.
The ''Height of Collimation" method.

RISE AND FALL METHOD

Explanation:
• Each line of level book corresponds to a staff position as indicated in remarks column.
• When calculating the rises or falls, the figures in the FS or IS columns must be subtracted from the figures
in the line immediately above, this is either in the same column or to the left. A positive difference is recorded
as a rise, while a negative difference is recorded as a fall.
• At a CP, the FS is subtracted from the IS or BS in the line above and the BS on the same line as the FS is
then used to continue the calculation with the next IS or FS in the line below.
• The summations of BS, FS, RISES & FALLS are obtained and entered at the foot of the respective columns.
The arithmetical checks must be applied.

Arithmetical checks∑ (BS) - ∑ (FS) - ∑ (RISE) -∑ (FALL) = LAST RL - F1RS RL

*MISCLOSURE:
[The obtained RL of the closing station]-[The actual RL of that very station] is called the “misclosure".

Example 1.
The following reading where taken with a dumpy level 0.894, 1.643, 2.896, 3.016, 0.954, 0.692, 0.582, 0.251,
1.532,0.996, 2.135 the instrument was shifted after fourth (4th) and eight(8th) readings the first reading was
taken on the staff held on the bench mark of reduced level 820.765m. Rule out a page of a level field book and
enter the above staff readings. Calculate the reduced levels and apply the necessary checks.
NOTE since the instrument is moved after 4th and 8th readings 3.016 and 0.251 are the fore sights and 0.954
and 1.532 will be back sight.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 36

Arithmetic Checks
∑ (BS) -∑(FS) = ∑(Rise) - ∑(Fall) = Last RL - First RL
3.380 – 5.402 = 1.239 - 3.261 = 818.743 - 820.765
-2.022 = -2.022 = -2.022

Example 2.
Table 1

BS IS FS RISE FALL RL REMARKS

2.191 49.873 BM(49.873m)
2.505 0.314 49.559 A
2.325 0.180 49.739 B
3.019 1.496 0.829 50.568 C(CP)
2.513 0.506 51.074 D
1.752 2.811 0.298 50.776 E(CP)
3.824 2.072 48.704 TBM(48.710m)
∑ 6.962 ∑ 8.131 ∑ 1.515 ∑ 2.684 48.704
Checks
6.962 8.131 2.684 48.704
8.131 6.962 1.515 49.873
-1.169 -1.169 -1.169 -1.169

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 37

MISCLOSURE:
[The obtained RL of the closing station]-[The actual RL of that very station] is calledthe “misclosure".
Referring back to table1 showing the rise and fall booking method, the misclosure is obtained as:
Misclosure = Obtained RL of TBM - Actual RL of TBM
= 48.704 - 48.710 = -0.006

ACCURACY:
The accuracy is indicated by the misclosure. There is always an acceptable limit for misclosure, called the
"Tolerance (E)" given by:
E = ±(Fd√N) m where;
F is a factor varying from 1 to 3, depending on site & weather conditions.d is usually taken as 0.003m, and
N is the number of instrument positions.
For example our allowable misclosure (error) from table 1 vary from ±0.005m to ±0.016m, depending on
the value chosen for F.
NB: When the misclosure (closing error) is greater than the allowable error (tolerance), the leveling has to
be repeated. If the misclosure however (closing error) is less than the allowable error (tolerance)/ the
misclosure should be distributed as seen below.

ERROR DISTRIBUTION:
With reference to table1, our misclosure is -0.006m and it is within the acceptable limit of ±0.005m to ±0.016m.
This misclosure is to be distribute throughout the RLs of all points with the exception of the opening bench
mark.
*The usual way of error distribution is to apply an equal but cumulative amount of misclosure to each
instrument position.
Note: The applied correction takes the opposite sign of the misclosure. As with our example here, the
misclosure is -- 0.006m. There are altogether three instrument stations and the applied correction is as below:
where: n =Number varying stations.,
E = error, N=total number stations used.

STATION INITIAL RL ADJUSTMENT ADJUSTED RL REMARKS

BM 49.873 49.873 BM(49.873)
A 49.559 1/3(0.006)=0.002 49.561 A
B 49.739 1/3(0.006)=0.002 49.741 B
C(CP) 50.568 1/3(0.006)=0.002 50.570 C (CP)
D 51.074 2/3(0.006)=0.004 51.078 D
E(CP) 50.776 2/3 (0.006) = 0.004 50.780 E(CP)
TBM 48.704 3/3(0.006)=0.006 48.710 TBM(48.710)

Home work .The fig below is the abstract from the levelling field exercise. Use Riseand Fall
method , book and reduce the levels at each staff position.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 38

 HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD:

BS IS FS HOC RL REMARKS
2.191 52.063 49.372 BM(49.872)
2.507 49.556 A
2.325 49.738 B
3,019 1.496 53.586 50.567 C(CP)
2.513 51.073 D
1.752 2.811 52.527 50.775 E(CP)
3.817 48.710 TBM
∑6.962 ∑7.345 ∑8.124 49.872
6.962 48.710
+1.162 +1.162
TABLE II

BS IS FS HOC RL REMARKS
2.191 52.064 49.373 BM(49.873)
2.505 49.559 A
2.325 49.739 B
3,019 1.496 53.587 50.568 C(CP)
2.513 51.074 D
1.752 2.811 52.528 50.776 E(CP)
3.824 48.704 TBM(48.710)
∑6.962 ∑7.343 ∑8.131 ∑300.420
6.962 48.710
-1.169 -1.169

Explanation:
• Each line of a level book corresponds to a staff position as indicated in the remarks column.
The height of collimation is determined per instrument set up. For every instrument set up, a BS reading is
added to the RL of that very station to whichit is taken in order to get the H.O.C/HI. Height of instrument is
calculated for each setting of the instrument by adding the back sight (BS) to the elevation of the bench mark
(BM)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 39

The elevation of reduced level of the turning point is than calculated by subtracting from HI the fore sight.
If there are some intermediate points, the RL of those points are calculated by subtracting the intermediate
sight (IS) from the height of the instrument for that setting

HI = RL + BS
RL = HI - FS
RL = HI – IS
• After the HOC is determined, the RL of any point is got by subtracting its reading(IS or FS) from the HOC.
 E.g At I1, HOC1 - RL(BM) + BS(BM) = 49.873 + 2.191 = 52.064m.
• Summations of BS and FS are obtained and entered at the foot of the respectivecolumns, and the arithmetical
check should be applied.

Arithmetical checks
∑(BS) - ∑ (FS) = LASTRL - FIRSTRL.
6.962 - 8.131 = 48.710 - 49.873
-1.169 = -1.169

Additional check :
The sum of each collimation height ,multiplied by the number of RLobtained from it = to the sum of all
intermediates , FSs and RLs excluding the first RL.
Sum of [H.I x No of RLs obtained from it]= sum of [IS+FS +RLs except first RL]
[52.064 x 3 + 53.587 x 2 + 52.528 x 1] = [7.343 + 8.131 + 300.420]
315.894 = 315.894

The misclosure, accuracy and error distribution are all the same as was seen in the Rise andFall method (i.e
done the same way).

* The rise and fall method, although involves more arithmetic, is preferred since it checksall reduced levels,
compared to HOC method where intermediate RLs are unchecked.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 40

*On the other hand, the HOC method is quicker and simpler and is preferred where a lot ofreadings (IS) are
taken from one instrument station.

Example 3.1. The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level book page and
reduce the levels by the height of instrument method. 0.578 B.M.(= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and
0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679 and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.
SOLUTION

Reduce the levels of the stations from the readings given in this Example by the rise and fall method.

MISCELLANEOUS:
ONE SET UP LEVELLING:
This is leveling carried out with only one instrument position; and say many ISs taken. Eg Leveling at a building
site. There is no change point in this type of leveling.
SERIES/CONTINOUS LEVELING:
This is leveling carried out with more than one instrument position. This involves many change points. Series
leveling is convenient where there are some obstacles orwhere leveling is to cover quite a large area.
FLYING LEVELING:
This is leveling or readings taken for the purpose of checking a series of levels already taken in greater detail.
Flying levels are taken without inter sights, and everypoint is treated as a change point. The system is used
between two points of known RLs. Leveling can be run back through the CPs already used or via new ones
and toclose onto the starting point, or some other point of known height. To reduce errors BS and FS distances
should be kept equal..

TRIAL LEVELING:
These are a series of levels taken merely to determine the difference in heights between two points. It is usually
carried out as a reconnaissance survey before a more detail survey is carried out. `

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 41

RECIPROCAL LEVELLING:
For all levelling, true differences in height between pairs of points are obtained by ensuring that their sight
lengths are equal. This eliminates the effect of any collimation error and also the effects of curvature and
refraction.

However, there are certain applications in engineering and site work when it may not be possible to take staff
readings with equal sight lengths, as, for instance, when a line of levels has to be taken over a gap such as a
river or ravine. In these cases, the technique of reciprocal levelling can be used.
Figure 2.25 shows two points A and B on opposite sides of a river. To obtain the true difference in height
between A and B a level is placed at I1 close to A on one side of the river and a levelling staff is held vertically
at A and B in turn. Staff readings of a1 at A and b1 at B are taken and the level is then moved to the other side
of the river to position I2 where readings a2 and b2 are taken.
The difference in height between A and B is obtained by treating each reading at A as a BS and each reading
at B as a FS. This gives the height difference DHAB as (a1 - b1 ) or (a2 - b2 ) , but with a BS and FS taken over
very unequal sight lengths from each instrument position. Since staff readings a1 and b2 are taken over short
distances, it is assumed that the effect of any collimation error in the level and the effects of curvature and
refraction on these readings are small and can be ignored. This will not be the case for staff readings b1 and a2,
which have been taken over long distances.
However, since these readings have been taken over the same distances with the same level, the combined
effect e of the collimation error and curvature and refraction be the same in both readings. The corrected staff
readings are (b1 - e ) and (a2 - e )and the true difference in height between A and B is given by the mean of the
two observed differences from I1 and I2 as

Reciprocal levelling is employed to determine the correct difference of level between two points which are
quite apart and where it is not possible to set up the instrument between the two points for balancing the sights.
It eliminates the errors due to the curvature of the earth, atmospheric refraction and collimation.
If the two points between which the difference of level is required to be determined are A and B then in
reciprocal levelling, the first set of staff readings (a1 and b1) is taken by placing the staff on A and B, and
instrument close to A. The second set of readings (a2 and b2) is taken again on A and B by placing the instrument
close to B. The true difference of level between A and B is given by

and the combined error is given by

where
e = el + ec – er
el = the collimation error assumed positive for the line of sight inclined upward,
ec = the error due to the earth’s curvature, and
er = the error due to the atmospheric refraction.
We have

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 42

ec – er = the combined curvature and refraction error
= 0.067d2.
The collimation error is thus given by
el = e – 0.067d2 in metre
where d is the distance between A and B in kilometre.

Example1
In leveling across a river, reciprocal leveling observations gave the following results for a staff held vertically
at X and Y from level station A and B on each bank respectively.
Staff reading of X from A = 1.753 Staff reading of X from B = 2.080 Staff reading of Y from A = 2.550 Staff
reading of Y from B= 2.895
If the RL of X is 90.37m (AOD).obtain that of Y
Solution:
It is noted from the staff readings that Y is lower than X.
From true difference, ∆H =1/2[(a1-b1) + (a2-b2)] Instrument at A:
Apparent difference, ∆H = (1.753-2.550) =-0.797 Instrument at B:
Apparent difference , ∆H = (2.080-2.895) =-0.815
True difference =1/2[(-0.797) +(-0.815) ] =-0.806
RL of Y= 90.37-0.806 =89.564m
Question 1

Question 2

INVERT LEVELLING:
Normally the levels of interest to the surveyor are below the L.O.C, but this is not always thecase. For example
when leveling under a bridge or checking the levels of the underside of theroof or taking the levels of the ceiling
or to continue the leveling operations over an obstruction.To overcome this problem we need to have what we
call the "inverted staff position." INVERTED STAFF POSITION:
To obtain levels of points above the L.O.C, say underside of the bridge. The staff isheld upside down in an
inverted position, with its base on the elevated points. Whenbooking an invested staff reading, it is entered in

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 43

the leveling table with a "minus sign", and the calculation is carried out in the normal way, taking the sign into
account.
Illustration:
*Let us look at the fig. below to illustrate leveling on the underside of a bridge.

Explanation:
Each inverted reading is recorded as a negative reading, the rise and fall computed accordingly.
Eg The rise from TBMA to pt X is given by: BS - IS =1.317 - (-3.018) = +4.335m.The fall from Z to TBMB is
given by: IS - FS = -3.602 -1.498 = -5.100m. The table below shows the booking of the above reading.
The table below shows the booking of the above reading.
INVERTED STATF-BOOKING(RISE&FALL)
BS IS FS RISE FALL RL REMARKS
1.317 20.794 TBMA(20.794m)
-3.018 4.335 25.129 X
1.427 2.894 5.912 19.217 CP
-2.905 4.332 23.549 Y
-3.602 0.697 24.246 Z
1.498 5.100 19.146 TBMB(19.144m)
∑2.744 ∑4.392 ∑9.364 ∑11.012 19.146
2.744 9364 20.794
-1.648 -l.648 -1.648

ERRORS IN LEVELLING:
i). Temperature effects on the instrument:
Temperature variation causes a change in the surface tension of the liquid in the bubble cube. The higher the
temperature at one ends of the bubble tube, the lower the surface tension, and the bubble is displaced towards
that end.
* Care should be taken to shade the instrument from direct sunlight so as to avoid differential heating.
ii). Effects of collimation error. If the instrument is inclined at an angle, e, to the horizontalwhen the bubble is
central, then e is the collimation error.
*To obtain the correct difference in height, the instrument is set midway between the two points in question.
iii). Effects of change in the instrument height: If say after taking a BS reading, the instrument level sinks
down a bit before taking a FS reading, then the height difference obtained will have some error.
*Choose a firm ground as the instrument station.
iv). The effect of zero error on the staff: This occurs when the zero graduation does not coincide exactly
with the base of the staff. Use only one staff so that the error is eliminated at each instrument set up.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 44

v). Graduation of the staff: If this is detected during a laboratory calibration, the correction is applied to the
observed staff reading.
vi). None verticality of the staff: Since the staff is used to measure a vertical difference between the ground
and the line of collimation, failure to hold the staff vertical will result in incorrect readings.
This error is eliminated by using a staff provided with circular spirit level. Another alternativeis to swing the
staff slowly backwards and forwards along the vertical and the lowest observedreading taken.
vii) Effect of staff sinking: There is a possibility of the staff to sink during the interval when the readings are
being taken, due to the softness of the ground by the staff.
* Use a base plate (change plate) to reduce the pressure caused by the staff on the ground.
Viii The effect of curvature and refraction: Early study has shown that the combined effect of curvature and
normal refraction makes a staff reading to a high by an amount approximatelyequal to [6.7S2 (l0-5)]mm, where
S is the sighting distance in meters.
*This error is eliminated by making the BS and FS distances equal at each setup.
ix) Reading and booking errors: Care must be taken when reading the staff especially with the dumpy and
tilting levels where the staff has an inverted image.

Reading error includes:

 Reading the stadia hair instead of the cross center hair.
• Reading up instead of down with an inverted staff.
• Reading in error.
Booking error includes:
• Entering readings in the wrong column.
• Transposing the digits,
• Omitting location information.
Note: Always read, book and re-read again with care and attention.

APPLICATION OF LEVELLING:
Leveling is basically needed in, sectioning, contouring and setting out

SECTIONING:
This type of levelling is used to produce ground profiles for use in the design of roads, railwaysand pipelines.
In the case of such projects, the route centre-line is set out using pegs at 10 m, 20 m or 30 m intervals.
Levels are then taken at these peg positions and at critical points such as sudden changes in ground profiles,
road crossings, ditches, bridges, culverts, etc. A plot of these elevations is called a longitudinal section.
When plotting, the vertical scale is exaggerated compared with the horizontal, usually in the ratio of 10 : 1.
The longitudinal section is then used in the vertical design process to produce formation levelsfor the proposed
route design
Sectioning is usually undertaken for construction work such as roads, railways and pipelines. There are two
types of sections, namely "longitudinal" and "cross" sections.

LONGITUDINAL SECTION:
Longitudinal section (Profile) is usually taken along the proposed center line of the construction (Road).
Leveling is run along the center line in order to determine the heights of points so that the profile can be
plotted. Longitudinal section provides data for determining the most economic "formation level".
*Formation level is that level to which existing ground is formed by construction methods.
*The optimum position for the formation level is usually found by drawing the longitudinal section with the
"mass haul diagram"

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 45

In carrying out the operation of longitudinal section, the center line of the section is first set outon the ground
and marked with pegs. Pegs are usually placed at regular intervals say about 20 m along the center line. After
the pegs are set, the leveling operation then follows with its general rules. Levels are taken at the following
points.
• At the ground level of each center line peg, marked at regular interval.
• At points on the center line at which the ground slope changes.
• At points where features such as fences, hedges, roads, pavements etc cross the center line. For a feature
such as water channel, levels are taken at the top and bottom. Where necessary, inverted staff readings to
underpasses or bridges should be taken.
NB: Distances denoting chainage should be recorded for each level taken and there is always a special column
for this. Good use of the remarks column must be made so that each point canbe clearly identified when plotting.
The profile is obtained by plotting the levels of points taken against distances (drainages). The plotting is
normally done with different scales for heights and distances (chainages). The scale for the horizontal distance
would be smaller than that for the vertical heights. For example we may have a scale of 1:500 for the horizontal
distance and1:00 for the vertical heights. The reason for different scales is that the horizontal distance maybe
quite long and in order to reduce the length of the drawing sheet, The horizontal scale shouldbe smaller than the
vertical scale.
Example of a longitudinal section:

CROSS SECTONS.
A longitudinal section provides information only along the center line of the proposed development. For works
such as sewers or pipelines, a longitudinal section provides sufficientdata since such developments are only to
a narrow extent
In constructions of other projects such as roads and railways, existing ground level information,at right angles
to the center line is required. Such information is provided by taking "cross sections"
Cross sections are taken at regular intervals along the center line usually where pegs have beenestablished.
A ranging rod is placed on either side of the center line to mark each cross section.
Note: The longitudinal and cross sections are usually leveled in the same operations. Starting at a BM, leveling
is taken at each center line peg and at intervals along each cross section, on either side of the centre line peg
or at any point where the ground in undulating. Leveling is finally closed on another known point.
Example of Field Booking for A Cross Section

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 46

BS IS FS HOC RL DIST REMARKS
CHAIN AGE 420m
1.32 150.47 149.15 , TBM,Ch420m(149.15m)
LEFT -
1.43 149.04 3.5 Channel
1.13 149.34 5.0 Ground Level
1.42 149.05 7.5 Ground Level
RIGHT
1.45 149.02 3.5 Channel
1.15 149.32 5.0 Ground Level
1.01 149.46 7.5 Ground Level
1.30 149.17 CL,Ch440m
Cross Sectional Drawing

2) CONTOURING:
A contour is a horizontal curve connecting points of equal elevation. They graphically represent, in a two-
dimensional format on a plan or map, the shape or morphology of the terrain. The vertical distance between
contour lines is called the contour interval. Depending on the accuracy required, they may be plotted at 0.1-m
to 0.5-m intervals in flat terrain and 1-m to 10-m intervals in undulating terrain. The interval chosen depends
on:
(1) The type of project involved; for instance, contouring an airstrip requires an extremely small contour
interval.
(2) The type of terrain, flat or undulating
(3) The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field data required, resulting in greater
expense.

Contours are generally well understood so only a few of their most important properties will be outlined here.
(1) Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
(2) The horizontal separation between contour lines indicates the steepness of the ground. Close spacing
defines steep slopes, wide spacing gentle slopes.
(3) Highly irregular contours define rugged, often mountainous terrain.
(4) Concentric closed contours represent hills or hollows, depending on the increase or decrease in elevation.
(5) The slope between contour lines is assumed to be regular.
(6) Contour lines crossing a stream form V’s pointing upstream.
(7) The edge of a body of water forms a contour line.

Contours are used by engineers to:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 47

(1) Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
(2) Compute volumes.
(3) Construct route lines of constant gradient.
(4) Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
(5) Delineate and measure drainage areas.

Definition of terms:
a) Spot Height/ Spot Level:
These are levels taken on a site in a random manner on various spots or points of the ground.
b) A Contour Line:
Is an imaginary line on the surface of the earth, with every point along it being at the same height or
altitude.
Add: When drawn on a map or plan, a series of such lines of different heights above datum, will provide
useful information for purposes of designing layouts for roads, railways, drainage schemes and other
engineering and building operations.
c) The Vertical Internal (VI):
Is the difference in height between successive contour lines. The VI is usually constant on any one
drawing.
Add: The VI used on a map or plan will depend on:
i. The scale of the drawing:
Large scale drawings use small VIs, while small scale drawings use big VIs. For example large scale
drawings for engineering and building operations may use VIsfrom 0.5m to 3.0m, while topographic maps at
smaller scales may have VIs from 3m to 15.0m.
ii The purpose for which the drawing is prepared:
If the survey is carried out as a reconnaissance survey, for example to determine the direction of slope of a
line or direction of flow of a river, a big VI is used since many contours are not required. On the other hand
if the purpose is to compute the volume of earthworks from contours, then a small VI is used, since the
smaller the VI, the better the accuracy of volume computation.
iii The Nature of the Ground:
If the ground is much steeper, a big VI is used in order to a give reasonable Spacing of contours, while on
less steeper ground, a small VI is used in order to have a reasonable number of contours shown. (Fig 1)

d) Horizontal Equivalents (HE)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 48

 Is the shortest horizontal distance between successive contour lines. At the same VI, the HE will be smaller
on a more slopping ground than on a gently sloping ground. (Fig.2 ).

The smaller the HE, the steeper the ground and vice versa.
e) The Gradient:
Is a measure of the slope of the ground, and is expressed in the above terms as: Gradient = [Vertical
Interval/Horizontal Equivalent] = Vl/HE.
Add: The gradient is usually expressed as a ratio of the height risen or fallen to an equivalent horizontal
distance traveled or covered. E.g. to travel a horizontal distance of 10 units in order to rise 1 unit would be
written as 1 in 10, or expressed as a percentage as 10%

READING A CONTOUR MAP OR PLAN:(X-tics of contours).

Important features of land can readily be seen from contours as follows.
i). The direction of the steepest slope is always at right angle to the contour lines. A proposed route may
therefore have to cut the run of the contours along a diagonal line in order to maintain a reasonable gradient.
i. Contour lines that are close together indicate steep slopes, i.e. small HE indicates a large gradient.
ii. Contour lines that are widely spaced indicate a gentle slope.
iii. A contour island indicates either a hill or a depression, according to how the levels are changing. When
contour values are increasing inwards, it is a hill and if decreasing in wards, it is a depression.
iv. Contour lines will never meet or cross, except only in the case of a vertical cliff or a cave. (Fig.3&4
respectively).

A contour line must be continuous, and can never split into two lines. It cannot simply end, but must close
back on itself, though not necessarily on any one map.

v. A peek or summit will be indicated by a small dot with relevant spot height along side. If it is also a
triangulation point, the dot will be enclosed in a small triangle. NB: Triangulation points are used as control
points for mapping.
vi. The slope between contour lines is assumed to be regular.

METHODS OF CONTOURING:
1 Direct method.
2 Indirect method.

DIRECT METHOD
Two methods are involved.( i) Linear measurements(consult the previous notes) and (ii ) Leveling.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 49

 Leveling.
Set up , level, centre and focus the leveling instrument on the site near the BM ,e.g (BM=94.070m) above
datum. Let the vertical interval =2m.
BS on BM=1.630m
HOC =94.070 + 1.630 =95.700m
From this HOC, the contour positions of 92.00 and 94.00 can be located/observed.
A staff man will hold a staff facing the instrument and moves slowly .up or down hill, until the surveyor
reads 3.7m ,indicating that the bottom of the staff is at 92.00m ,because HI=95.7- 92.00 =3.70(staff
reading).the position where this reading was obtained is marked with a peg by the staff man and a series of
staff readings of 3.70 marked with pegs will enable the 92.00m contour to be set out on the ground. And
94.00m contour is set out the same way.
To establish the 90.00m contour, a staff reading of 5.70m is required. i.e 95.70-90.00=5,700m, but the staff
is only 5m high. This is unattainable from this instrument station, afore sight reading must be taken and the
instrument changed to a new position. FS =4.830 and BS =1.310 (see table below).in this new position, the
90.00 & 88.00m contours can be established by taking the staff readings as 2.180 & 4.180m .Using the same
procedure of moving a staff slowly up and down hill as above .then the leveling is finally checked by
crossing back to the BM.

BS IS FS HOC RLs REMARKS

1.630 95.700 94.070 BM(94.070)
3.700 92.00 92m contour
1.700 94.00 94m contour
1.310 4.830 92.180 90.870 cp
2.180 90.00 90m contour
4.180 88.00 88m contour
0.310

This is a method where the contours are found by means of ordinary leveling techniques. Each point on the
contour line is exactly pegged out in the field. It involves too much field work, though with minimum office
work. [Note; less used in practice].
This method, although quite accurate, is tedious and uneconomical and could never be used over a large area.
It is ideal, however, in certain construction projects which require excavation to a specific single contour line.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 50

2 Indirect Leveling for Contours:
This is a method by which lines are ranged out on the ground and the RLs of points along the lines, usually at
regular intervals are found by means of ordinary leveling techniques.
The points where the contours cut the lines are then determined from the RLs by means of interpolation. This
is done in the office after plotting the lines on the survey drawing with the RLs of points that were taken.(Fig.5).
Once the contour positions have been located, they are then joined together by smooth curved lines to complete
the drawing.
* Although the spot heights are initially put on the drawing, they are left out as the final contours are traced
out.

*The contour position can be accurately interpolated mathematically, or at bestthe interpolated position
estimated by eye.
E.g. Consider Fig 5 above (line PX), to accurately interpolate mathematically the plan position of the 110m
contour line between the two points of RL 109m and 117m, given that the RLs were taken at 10m intervals.

d/h = D/H, implying that: d = Dh/H = (10 x l)/8 = 1,25m.

Therefore C1 is measured an equivalent scale length of 1.25m from A' towards B'to locate the position of the
110m contour.

When the RLs of all the intersection points are obtained, the contours are located by linear interpolation
between the levels, on the assumption of a uniform ground slope between each value. The interpolation may
be done arithmetically, using a pocket calculator, or graphically.

Consider grid points B2 and B3 with reduced levels of 30.20 m and 34.60 m respectively and a horizontal
grid interval of 20 m (Figure 2.28). Horizontal distance of the 31-m contour from B2 = x1
where (20/4.40) = 4.545 m = K and x1 = K × 0.80 m = 3.64 m
Similarly for the 32-m contour
x2 = K × 1.80 m = 8.18 m
where (20/4.40) is a constant K, multiplied each time by the difference in height from the reduced level of
B2 to the required contour value. For the graphical interpolation, a sheet of transparent paper (Figure 2.29)
with equally spaced horizontal lines is used. The paper is placed over the two points and rotated until B2
obtains a value of 30.20 m and B3 a value of 34.60 m. Any appropriate scale can be used for the line separation.
As shown, the 31-, 32-, 33- and 34-m contour positions can now be pricked through onto the plan.
This procedure is carried out on other lines and the equal contour points joined up to form the contours
required.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 51

GRID LEVELING FOR INDIRECT CONTOURING:
This is the most systematic and commonly used method for indirect contouring.
• The area is first surveyed.
• The area is then gridded.
• The spot levels are then taken at the points of intersection of the grid lines.
• The grids are then plotted on the survey drawing and contours obtained by interpolation from spot levels.
The grid size depends on the slope of the ground.
E.g. for gentle slopes, the grid can be 20m X 20m, while on steeper ground 5m X 5m or 10m X 10m can be
used.
It may be necessary to take a spot level inside the grid square, where there is a feature of interest
e.g. where a trench passes or where there is a sudden change in ground level. Such points are surveyed with
respect to the grid lines and plotted accurately.
NB: No matter what type of grid is laid out on the ground, it will always be plotted to scale on a two dimensional
plan. The grids must therefore be set out by means of horizontal measurements and not on the slope
measurements. The grid is set out by placing a double line of ranging rods along
each of the adjacent sides of the grid. The staff man then aligns himself using the
pairs of the rods in order to place the staff at the intersection of grid lines (Fig.
7).
Lines in one direction are given letters A, B, C, D, and another direction given
numbers
1,2,3,4.
Every point of intersection can then be specified by its coordinates when booking
and plotting.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 52

E.g. (E,5) is the intersection of lines E and 5.
Leveling is then carried out to each point by ordinary leveling process.
If absolute heights are required, then leveling must start from the nearest BM, and if relative heights, then an
arbitrary reference point may be selected.
The instrument must always be rayed back to the starting point for every set up,to check that the HOC is not
altered (i.e. the same reading must be observed).

3). SETTING OUT:

Setting out is the term used for the operations necessary for the correct positioning of proposed works on the
ground, and their dimensional control during the construction process.
TERMS
a). A Sight Rail: is a horizontal strip of wood fixed to two upright supports, which are driven into the ground
on either side of the line of proposed development (cut/fill). The level of the bottom of excavation is
calculated and the top of the sight rail set at a specific height above this level (Fig.l).

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 53

Another sight rail will be erected at another point in a similar way along the line of excavation, in such a way
that the line of sight over the rails is parallel to the proposed bottom of the excavation (fig 2 below)
b). A Traveller

This is a thin timber in shape of a T- square. The length of the traveller is the same as from the top of the sight
rail to the invert/formation level, (Fig. 3).

As excavation proceeds, the traveler is sighted in between the sight rails and used to monitor the cutting or
filling. Excavation or compaction stops when the tops of the sight rails and the traveler are all in line (Fig 4).

c)Boning Rod

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 54

This is a traveller used for laying down the pipes. It is fitted with an angle iron at the invert level (Fig. 5).

d) Soffit:
Is the level of the inside top surface of pipe (fig 6)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 55

 e)An Invert:
An invert is the level of inside surface of a drainage pipe (fig 6)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 56

Example.2
An existing sewer at X is to be continued to Y, through 1,2,3,4 and 5. It is to continue at a uniform falling
gradient, and thus designed that the invert level at point 1 be 1.121m below the ground level. The following
were the staff readings receded in order of observations:

STAFF READING STAPF STATION

(m)
1.821 BM(RL = 83.442m)

1.296 X, ground level, chainage 700m

2.801 X, invert level, chainage 700m

1.930 1, ground level, chainage 740m

1.963 2, ground level, chainage 780m

2.003 3, ground level, chainage 820m

1.249 3, ground level, chainage 820m

1.614 4, ground level, chainage 860m

1.795 5, ground level, chainage 900m

1.859 Y, ground level, chainage 940m

a). Reduce the observed levels by Height Of Collimation method. (9 marks] b). Obtain the amount of cut at
the chainage points. (11 marks)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 57

Solution:
a).
BS IS FS HOC RL REMAR
KS
1.821 85.623 83.442 BM(83.44
2)
1.296 83.967 XCL, CH
700
2.801 82.462 Xii.,
CH700
1.930 83.333 IGL, CH
740
1.963 83.300 2ct, CH
780
1.249 2.003 84.509 83.260 Set, CH
820
1.614 82.895 4cL, CH
860
1.795 82.714 SGL, CH
900
1.859 82.650 YGL, CH
940
3.862 83.442
-3.070 -
82.650
3.070 40.792 +0.792

b). Invert Level at 1 = 83.333 - 1.121 = 82.212m. Gradient - (ILx - ILi)/40 * (82.462 -82.212)/40 IL at chainage,
C, from X = ILx - C/160, thus:
ILi = 82.462 -40/160 -82.212m TL2« 82.462 -80/160 = 81.962m IL3= 82.462 - 120/160 = 81.712m FL4 = 82.462
- 160/160 - 81.462m ILs = 82.462 - 200/1 60 - 81.212m
ILv = 82.462 - 240/160 = 80.962m 0.25/40 = 1 in 160.

Amount of cut = RL ground - Invert Level, thus: At: 2 = 83.300 -81.962 = 1.338m. 3 = 83.260 - 81.712 - 1 .548m.
4 = 82.895 - 81.462 = 1 ,433m.
5 = 82.714 - 81.212 - 1.502m. Y = 82.650 = 80.962 - 1 .6S8m

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 58

 4.0. THEODOLITES
The theodolite is an instrument which is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
Classification
A theodolite is classified according to the method used to read the circles .The methods used are:
i) Vernier
ii) Direct reading
iii) Optical micrometer iv)
iv) Electronic Digital display
Despite this range of reading systems the basic principles of construction of the theodolite are similar.

Figur 4.1 show Typical optical mechanical theodolite

Components of the theodolite
a) Telescope: It is the principle component of the instrument
- It provides a line of sight.
- It may be revolved through 360 about its transverse horizontal axis.
b) Trunion axis (transit axis) is a plate at right angles to the line of collimation.
c) Horizontal circle(lower plate): it is in form of circular protractor graduated in a clockwise direction and
numbered from 000 to 3600. It allows the direction of the line of sight of the telescope at any pointing to read off
against its edge. The difference between the readings of any two such pointing, we give the angles between the
direction of the two lines.
d) Vertical circle: it is similar to the horizontal circle but fixed in the vertical plane to allow angles of elevation
and depression to be measured.
e) Spirit level: it enables the horizontal and vertical circle to be set in horizontal and vertical planes.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 59

f) Vertical and Horizontal axes: they enables the telescope to be rotated in the horizontal and vertical planes,
so that it may be pointed in any direction .Additional components e.g clamps, plumb bob, leveling head is to
make vertical axis vertical.
g) Alidade: it is the remainder of theodolite comprising the uprights, which support the telescope, vertical circle
and the spirit level.
h) Tripod: it provides the support for the instrument. The tripods may be telescopic, i.e, they have sliding legs,
or may have legs of fixed length.
Setting up a theodolite (Temporary adjustments)
1) Setting up the tripod: The tripod legs are spread out and rested slightly on the ground around the mark.
- With the plumb bob hanging, let the tripod move until the plumb bob is over the mark.
- Use the spirit level to ensure that the bubble is a approximately central.
- The legs of the tripod are pushed firmly into the ground only when the bubble is centered and plumb bob very
close to the survey mark.
2) Mounting the instrument: The theodolite is carefully removed from the box and screwed to the tripod.
3) The leveling sequency is identical like that of a dumpy level.
- Let the plate bubble be parallel to the two screws and centralize the bubble.
- Turn the telescope through 900 and recentralize the bubble [using the third screw only]
- Repeat the operations i) and ii) until the bubble remains central for both positions.
READING THEODOLITE CIRCLE SYSTEMS
The theodolite circles are generally read by means of a small auxiliary reading telescope at the side of the main
telescope (Figure.4.1) Small circular mirrors reflect light into the complex system of lenses and prisms used to
read the circles.
There are Four types of reading system; Vernier, optical scale reading, optical micrometer reading and
electronic digital display.
1) optical scale reading system
This system, both horizontal and vertical scales are simultaneously displayed and are read directly with the aid
of the auxiliary (back up) telescope. Figure 4.2, illustrates this type of reading system and shows the scale from
0` to 60`equal in scale of one degree on the circle.
This type of instrument is frequently referred to as a direct-reading theodolite and, at best, can be read, by
estimation, to 20``

Figur.4.2
2) optical micrometer reading system
The optical micrometer system generally uses a line microscope, combined with an optical micrometer.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 60

 Figure 4.3 shows the diametrically opposite scales brought into coincidence by means of the optical micrometer
screw. The number of divisions on the main scale between 940 and 950 is three; therefore each division represents
20` The indicator mark can only take up one of two positions, either mid division or on a full division. In this
case it is mid-division and represents a reading of 94010`

Figur.4.3,Show Wild T2 theodolite reading system

3) Electronic theodolite digital display.

This system displays both horizontal and vertical circle reading automatically on the key pad.

Figure4.4 Typical Electronic theodolite or(Total Station ) and Target with Interchangeable tribrach

HOME WORK: Read and make notes on Vernier theodolite

a) Measuring Horizontal Angles
When the theodolite is exactly set over a survey mark and leveled, it can be used in two faces to measure the
horizontal angles.
1) Face left (i.e when the vertical circle is on the observers left handside as he sights an object.
2) Face right (i.e when the vertical circle is on the observers right hand side as he sights an object
And this operations is called transiting the telescope. In the figure below, the horizontal angle PQR is to be
measured.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 61

 Methods used when measuring horizontal angles 1) Reiteration method.
2) Repetition method
REITERATION METHOD (WITHOUT SETTING TO ZERO)
Instru.station Target position F.L. reading F.R reading Mean angle
0 0
Q P 25 30` 205 30`
R 900 55` 2700 55`
650 25` 650 25` 650 25`
a) Close the lower plate clamp.
b) Set the instrument on face left.
c) Open the upper plate clamp and the telescope clamp.
d) Turn the instrument carefully towards left hand target P and sight the target , lock the upper plate and the
telescope clamp.
e) Focus the telescope on the target.
f) Read the horizontal circle and note the reading 25030`.
g) Repeat the operation c,d,e and f for the right hand target R, book the horizontal circle reading 90055`.
h) Subtract reading P from R and the difference will give you the horizontal angle.
i) Transit the telescope to set the instrument to face right.
j) Repeat operations c, d, e and f. Note the left hand target reading P = 2050 30`.
k) Repeat operations c,d,e & f for right hand target R. Note the reading on the right hand target R = 270055`.

Mean angle = (650 25` + 65025`)/2 = 650 25`

There are two methods used to calculate mean observed angles

1) Difference method 2) Mean method

Difference Method
d1 = θ2 – θ1 ……………………………………………….i
d2 = θ3 – θ4 …………………………………………………ii
Therefore θ = [d1 + d2]/2 ………………………………….iii

Mean method

M1 = …………………………….i

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 62

 M2 = …………………………….ii
!

Note .Mean only minutes and seconds only

Therefore θ = [m2 - m1]/2 ………………………………….iii
Example1: the following angles were measured during a theodolite transverse by observing on both faces.
Instr.Station Target Position F.L reading F.R reading Mean
Horz.angl
B A 000 24` 40`` 1800 24` 40``
C 650 36` 20`` 2450 36` 20``
C B 000 00` 00`` 1790 59` 30``
D 660 34` 20`` 2460 33` 50``
D C 3320 10` 20`` 1520 10` 40``
E 870 08` 00`` 2670 08` 20``
G Q 1270 41` 45`` 3070 41` 42``
S 510 25` 37`` 2310 25` 40``

Calculate the mean observed angles ABC, BCD, CDE & QGS Solution:

Instr.Station Target Position F.L reading F.R reading Mean

Horz.angl
B A [1] 000 24` 40`` [4] 1800 24`
40``
C [2] 650 36` 20`` [3] 2450 36`
20``
650 11` 40`` 650 11` 40`` 650 11` 40``
C B 000 00` 00`` 1790 59` 30``
D 660 34` 20`` 2460 33` 50``
660 34` 20`` 660 34` 20`` 660 34` 20``
D C 3320 10` 20`` 1520 10` 40``
E 870 08` 00`` 2670 08` 20``
1140 57` 40`` 1140 57` 40`` 1140 57` 40``
G Q 1270 41` 45`` 3070 41` 42``
S 510 25` 37`` 2310 25` 40``
2830 43` 52`` 2830 43` 58`` 2830 43` 55``

Repetition method (Repeated addition)

It is the method adopted for the measure of small angles as the measuring accuracy of the instrument can be
greatly increased.
Procedure: Suppose angle XYZ is to be measured

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 63

i) Set the instrument to face left and close the lower plate clamp. Sight station X and note the reading.
ii) Release upper plate clamp, turn the instrument to station Z and close the clamp iii) Release the lower plate
clamp [with Vernier still retaining the reading obtained in (ii)].
Re sight station X and close the clamp.
iv) Release the upper plate clamp, sight station Z for the second time and close the clamp. v) Repeat the
operations number. (iii) & (iv) for any number of times.
Suppose after 6 repetitions (times) of the measurement, the circle is read and the value of 12 0 36`18`` is
obtained.
Therefore the mean angle value of XYZ = 12036`18``/6 = 02006`03``
vi) Change the face of the instrument to (face right).Repeat the measurements for 6 times.
Mean value = [final reading at Z- first reading at X]/6 e.g. 02006`04``
The excepted mean value = [02006`03`` + 02006`04``] = 02006`3.5``

b) MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES

To measure the vertical angle of line AB, the marked point on the target, is set at the same height as the
instrument height (h1). The vertical angle is then measured by targeting onto the point on the target (h1).

Vertical angles (α) will consist of two sets of readings i.e. the face left and face right readings.
The readings shall then be reduced to an elevation or a depression by taking their mean.
The vertical circle, sometimes is graduated from 00 to 3600 with the 900 and 2700 or 00 to 1800 Graduations
defining the horizontal and vertical circle system must therefore be well understood from the beginning.

ERRORS IN ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Errors that may arise when measuring traverse angles can be outlined as follows.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 64

• Inaccurate centering of the theodolite or signals
• Non verticality of the targets • Inaccurate bisection of the targets
• Parallax not eliminated.
• Incorrect temporary and permanent adjustment of the theodolite.
• Incorrect reading and booking.

Linear measurement
• By steel tape.
• By optical distance measurement (ODM).
• By electro-magnetic distance measurement (EDM). The choice depends on the required sccuracy.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 65

 5.0. TRAVERSING:
Def: A traverse is a means of providing a network of control points over an area. The network is then used for
surveying details in the preparation of site plans.
*A traverse consists of measurements of angles (bearings) and distances between successive lines.
BEARINGS:
There are two types of bearings: i.e. "whole circle" and "quadrantal or reduced" bearings.
1. WHOLE CIRCLE BEARINGS (W.C.B):
The W.C.B of a line is the angle between 0° & 360°, between the direction of North and the direction of the
line, measured clockwise. (Fig Below)

αAB = WCB of line AB, i.e. bearing of B from A. αBA = WCB of line BA, i.e. Bearing of A from B.
If αAB is known then αBA is given by:
αBA = αAB ± 1800 . where
180° is added if αAB < 180°, and 180'is subtracted if αAB ≥ 180°.
2. QUADRANTAL BEARINGS (QB):
The Quadratic Bearing of a line is the angle between 0° & 90°, between the direction of North or South and the
direction of the line (Fig below)

The conversion of W.C.B to Reduced Bearing

W.C.B Reduced Bearing
600 30` N600 30`E
2400 10` 2400 10` - 1800 S600 10`W
3520 10` 3600 - 3520 10` N070 50`W
1310 00` 1800 - 1310 00` S490 00`E

NORTH DIRECTIONS:
The reference north point upon which bearings are based, may be: True, Magnetic, Arbitrary or Grid
North.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 66

 True North:
True North at a point is the direction or trace of a meridian running from South to North poles ( fig. below).

Magnetic North:
This is the direction revealed by a freely suspended magnetic needle, and measured with a prismatic compass.
The magnetic north does not coincide with the true north, and the angle between them is called the angle of
"declination". The angle of declination varies from time to time, and from place to place, (fig. below).

Arbitrary North:
This is any direction chosen to represent north, even though it is not near to the true or magnetic north.

Grid North
The grid north is the direction based on the national grid. The national grid is derived from a map projection,
which is a means of representing the curved surface of the earth on a plane, (fig below)

Triangulation points which are distributed throughout the country have been accurately coordinated on the
National Grid and very useful as reference points in setting out works. Distances and bearings calculated from
national grid coordinates will not in some cases agree with their equivalent field measurements
-Grid distance = field distance x scale factor.

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 67

 This is the coordinate system adopted in plane surveying and uses two axes at right angles to one another as in
Cartesian geometry. The axes are termed North axis and East axis, always at the same scale, (fig. below).

NB: For all types of survey and engineering works, the origin is taken at the extreme South and West of the
area so that all coordinates are positive.

UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM):

This is the standard projection used for all survey work worldwide. The latitudes and longitudes are represented
in the grid form on a plane surface.

MEASUREMENT TAKEN IN TRAVERSING:

Two major measurements are taken; i.e. "angular" and "linear" measurements.
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS:
(a). Horizontal angles.
(b). Vertical angles.
Before we have a look at the above two, temporary adjustments of the instrument must be done as follows:
(i). Setting up the instrument (theodolite).
(ii). Leveling the instrument, (iii). Removing of parallax.
""-Read (i), (ii) and (iii).
TYPES OF TRAVERSES:
1) Closed traverses:
2) Open Traverse.

1) Closed Traverse
a) Loop or Polygon Traverse.

It is a traverse that runs from known point X through 1,2,3— and closes back to the same known point X.
b) Link Traverse.

It is a traverse that runs from a known point X through 1,2,3- and closes at another known point Y.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 68

 2) OPEN TRAVERSES:

Is a traverse that runs from known point X through 1,2 ………and end at unknown point.

TRAVERSE CALCUALTION:
Abstract of field work:
The figure 1 below shows an abstract of field data in which angles and lengths are entered.

Figure 1
GIVEN DATA: αAD = 23°42'31", Coord. A (500.00mN, 600.00mE).

ANGUALR MISCLOSURE:
The observed angles of a polygon can be either internal or external depending in the direction in which the
traverse is run.
• For clockwise (external angles).
• For anticlockwise (internal angles).
The Angular misclosures are found by comparing the sum of the observed angles with the following theoretical
values:
i) (2n - 4)90°, for internal angles.
ii) (2n + 4)90°, for external angles, where n = number of angles or sides of the polygon
*For a link traverse, the angular misclosures are found by comparing the sum of the observed angles by the
theoretical value:
[(Final forward bearing) - (Initial back bearing) + (m* 18O°], where m= (n+1), n, (n-1) n = number of angles
(fig below)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 69

Thus: Angular misclosure, e, is given by: e = (Observed Sum) - (Theoretical Value/expected sum).
The correction takes the opposite sign of the misclosure and shared equally to the angles.

ALLOWABLE MISCLOSURE (e):

e < ± KS√N
where
K = Multiplying factor varying form 1-3.
S = Smallest reading interval on the theodolite in seconds.
N = Number of traverse stations.

Reference to fig.l.
Observed sum = (59°03'57" + 78045'57" + 87°45'57" + 134023'57") = 359°59'48".
Expected Sum = (2n - 4)90°, = ( 2 x 4 – 4 ) 90°, = 360°00'00" where n = 4,
Misclosure = 359059’48” - 360000'00" = -00°00`12" = 12"
Applied correction per station = +12"/4 = +3"
Adjusted angles are: <A = 59°04'00", <B = 78°46'00", <C= 87°46'00", <D = 134°24'00"

CALCULATION OF THE WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING

αBC =αAB + 180° + θB

i.e αBC = αAB + θB+180°................................(ii)

αBC =αAB + (θB - 180°)

i.e αBC = αAB + θ-180°................................(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii),
αBC =αAB ± 180°
Note: +180° if αAB < 180° and -180° if αAB > 180°

Referring to fig 1.
αDA= αAD +180°, = 23°42'31" + 180° =203°42'31",
Thus αDA = 203°42'31"

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 70

COMPUTATIONS OF PARTIAL COORDINATES(ΔN &ΔE)

CLOSING ERROR:
When ΔN and ΔE values have been computed, they are used to check the computation by getting the closing
error eN and eE,. The closing errors eN and eE are obtained as:

(i). For a polygon traverse, as in fig I, the expected sum of ΔN and ΔE = 0, since the traverse starts and ends at
the same point
Thus:

(ii). For a link traverse (fig below)

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 71

The starting point X and closing point Y shall have known coordinates The expected sum of ΔN and ΔE are given
by:

Thus

Referring to table I:
CM = + 0.06m and ec = -0.12m.

LINEAR MISCLOSURE(LM):
LM is obtained from eN and eE as:
LM= (eN2 + eE2 )1/2
Ref to Table I:
LM= [(+0.06)2+ (-0.12)2]1/2 = 0.13m.
Bearing of LM , αLM is given by:

FRACTIONAL LINEAR MISCLOSURE (FLM)

FLM = LM/ΣL = 1 in ΣL/LM. Referring to table I:
FLM = 0.13/1032.62 = 1in 7,943.

Then: After obtaining eN and eE, we apply a correction to every ΔN and ΔE using the following two
methods:

(i). Bowditch Method:

Correction to ΔN = (-eN x L)/ ΣL.
Correction to ΔE = (-eE x L)/ ΣL, where
L = the corresponding length of the traverse leg where that particular ΔN and ΔE occur.
SL - the total length of the traverse legs.

(ii). Transit Method:

Correction to ΔN = (-eN |ΔN |)/ Σ|AN|.
Correction to ΔE = (-eE |ΔE |)/ Σ|AE|, where | ΔN| and |ΔE| = the absolute values of ΔN and ΔE
respectively.
Σ| ΔN| and Σ|ΔE| = the absolute sum of ΔN and ΔE respectively..
Traverse Computation Table:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 72

Table II

ACCURACY OF COMPUTATION
In our example of fig 1, the coordinates of point A (500.00MN, 600.00ME) were given to 0.01m. This implies
that AN, DE and their corrections must all be computed to 0.01m. The final coordinates of all other points shall
then be to 0.01m as that of point A.

RECALL
For a link traverse, the expected sum of the left hand angles was given as:
Sum = (final forward bearing – initial back bearing) + (n - 1)1800 , this is the case if and only if the final
forward bearing is greater than the initial back bearing: if not then use:
Sum = (final forward bearing + 3600) – (initial back bearing) + (n - 1) 1800

PLOTTING TRANVERSE STATIONS

After the coordinates have been computed, the stations have to be plotted in order to a two dimensional plan of
the site. Unlike in chain surveying where the method of radiation would be used, in transverse the most
accurate method is to plot using the computed coordinates. This is done on the coordinate grid that is always
established first.

WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING AND DISTANCE CALCULATION FROM COORDINATES

If the coordinates of two points are known, it is possible to compute the WCB and the horizontal distance of
the line between the two points.
Suppose the coordinates of stations A and B are known to be A(NA, EA) and B(NB, EB) and that the WCB of
line AB (AB) and the horizontal length of line AB(LAB) are to be calculated (fig below)

It is important to make a sketch showing the relative positions of the two points.
This will help us determine the quadrant in which the line lies.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 73

NB, ΔE and ΔN are calculated with their signs,

WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1.The angles at the stations of a closed traverse ABCDEFA were observed as given below:

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 74

 Adjust the angular error in the observations, if any, and calculate the bearings of the
traverse
lines in the following systems if whole circle bearing of the line AB is 42°:
(a) Whole circle bearing.
(b) Quadrantal bearing.

Solution:
Adjustment of angular error
The sum of the internal angles of a polygon having n sides is (2n - 4). 90°, therefore for
six
sides polygon
Σ Internal angles = (2 × 6 – 4) × 90° = 720°
Σ Observed internal angles = 719°56′00′′
Total error = 719°56′00′′ – 720° = – 4′
Total correction = 4′ or 240′′.

Hence the correction to each angle

The corrected included angles are given in the following table

(a) Calculation of W.C.B.

W.C.B. of AB = 42° (given)
W.C.B. of BA = 180° + 42° = 222°00′00″
W.C.B. of BC = W.C.B. of BA – ∠B
= 222°00′00″ – 89°24′20″ = 132°35′40″
W.C.B. of CB = 180° + 132°35′40″ = 312°35′40″
W.C.B. of CD = W.C.B. of CB – ∠C
= 312°25′40″ – 131°01’40'’ = 181°34′00″
W.C.B. of DC = 180° + 181°34′00″ = 361°34′00″ – 360° = 1°34′00″
W.C.B. of DE = W.C.B. of DC – ∠D
= 361°34′00″ – 128°03′00″ = 233°31′00″
W.C.B. of ED = 180° + 233°31′00″ = 413°31′00″ – 360° = 53°31′00″
W.C.B. of EF = W.C.B. of ED – ∠E
= 413°31′00″ – 94°55′20″ = 318°35′40″
W.C.B. of FE = 180° + 318°35′40″ = 498°35′40″ – 360° = 138°35′40″
W.C.B. of FA = W.C.B. of FE – ∠F
= 498°35′40″ – 156°00′00″ = 342°35′40″
W.C.B. of AF = 180° + 342°35′40″ = 522°35′40″ – 360° = 162°35′40″
W.C.B. of AB = W.C.B. of AF – ∠A
= 522°35′40″ – 120°35′40″ = 402°00′00″-360° 42°00′00″. (Check)

(b) Computation of Quadrantal bearings (R.B.)

W.C.B. of AB = 42°
AB being N-E quadrant, R.B. = N42°E

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 75

 W.C.B. of BC = 132°35′40″
BC being S-E quadrant, R.B. = S (180° – 132°35′40″) E = S47°24′20″E
W.C.B. of CD = 181°34′00″
CD being S-W quadrant, R.B. = S(181°34′00″ – 180°)W = S1°34′00″W
W.C.B. of DE = 233°31′00″
DE being S-W quadrant, R.B. = S(233°31′00″ – 180°)W = S53°31′00″W
W.C.B. of EF = 318°35’40″
EF being N-W quadrant, R.B. = N(360° – 318°35’40″)W = N41°24′20″W
W.C.B. of FA = 342°35′40″
FA being N-W quadrant, R.B. = N(360° – 342°35′40″)W = N17°24′20″W.

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 76

Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 77
Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 78
Engineering Survey 1 notes by Musiimenta Milly Asiimwe Email:[email protected] 79