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38 views19 pagesUnit - Error - Theory
Error
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 19
= ALLEN)
pad annay CAREER INSTITUTE
Physics
ENTHUSIAST COURSE
te aS
Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
erelemcetiay ALLEN
Copyright Statement
All rights including trademark and copyrights and rights of translation etc. reserved and vested
exclusively with ALLEN Career Institute Private Limited, (ALLEN)
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, adapted, abridged or translated, transcribed,
transmitted, stored or distributed in any form retrieval system, computer system, photographic or
other system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic, magnetic, chemical or
manual, mechanical, digital, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, or stood in any retrieval
system of any nature without the written permission of the Allen Career Institute Private Limited.
Any breachwill entail legal action and prosecution without further notice.
This work is sold/distributed by Allen Career Institute Private Limited subject to the condition and
undertaking given by the student that all proprietary rights (under the Trademark Act, 1999 and
Copyright Act, 1957) of the work shall be exclusively belong to ALLEN Career Institute Private
Limited, Neither the Study Materials and/or Test Series and/or the contents nor any part thereof i.e.
work shall be reproduced, modify, re-publish, sub-license, upload on website, broadcast, post,
transmit, disseminate, distribute, sell in market, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means for reproducing or making multiple copies of it
‘Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this work may be liable to criminal
prosecution and civil claims for damages. Any violation or infringement of the propriety rights of
Allen shall be punishable under Section- 29 & 52 of the Trademark Act, 1999 and under Section- 51,
58 &63 of the Copyright Act, 1957 and any other Act applicable in India. All disputes are subjected to
the exclusive jurisdiction of courts, tribunals and forums at Kota, Rajasthan only.
Note:- This publication is meant for educational and learning purposes. All
reasonable care and diligence have been taken while editing and printing this
publication. ALLEN Career Institute Private Limited shall not hold any
responsibility for any error that may have inadvertently crept in.
ALLEN Career Institute Private Limited is not responsible for the consequences
of any action taken on the basis of this publication, ALLEN’ Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
1.0 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
a
4.1 Physical Quantities
Allquantities which can be measured are called physical quantities.
These are used to describe the laws of physics are known as physical quantities
Classification : Physical quantities can be classified on the following bases
1. Based on their directional properties
IL. Sealars : The physical quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are Called scalar quartites.
2g, mass, density, volume, ime, etc.
HL. Vectors : The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction and obey laws of vector
algebra are called vector quantities.
eg, displacement, force, velocity, etc
2. Based on their dependency
L. Fundamental or base quantities : The quantities which do not depend upon other quantities for their
complete definition are known as fundamental or base quantities:
eg. length, mass, time, ete.
I. Derived quantities : The quantities which can be expressed in terms ofthe fundamental quantities are
known as derived quantities
eg. Speed (=distance/time), volume, accelaration, free; pressure, ett.
Illustrations
Ilustration 1. Classify the quantities displacement, mass, fore, time, speed, velocity, accelaration, moment of
intertia, pressure and work under the following categories
(a) base and scalar (b) base and vector
(c) derived and scalar (d) derived and vector
Solution. (a) mass, time (b) displacement
(c) speed, pressure, work (d) fore, velocity, accelaration
4.2. Units of Physical Quantities
The chosen reference standard of measurement in multiples of which, a physical quantity is expressed is called
the unit of that quantity.
‘System of Units :
1. _ FPS or British Engineering system — In hissystem length, massand time are taken as fundamental,
Quantities and their base units are foot (ft), pound (Ib) and second (s) respectively.
2. CGS or Gaussian system:
Inthis system the fundamental quanti are length, mass and time and their respective units are centimetre
(cm), gram (g) and second (s)..
3. MKS system:
Inthis system also the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time but their fundamental units are
‘metre (m), Kilogram (kg) and second (s) respectively
4, International system (SI) of units
This system is modification over the MKS system and so itis also known as Rationalised MKS system.
Besides the three base units of MKS system four fundamental and two supplementary units are also
included in this system.
‘SI BASE QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS:
'S.No.| Physical quantity | Unit | Symbol
1 | Length metre | m
2 | Mass Kilogram| ha
3 | time second | s
4 | Temperature kelvin | K
5 _| Electric eurent ampere | A.
6 | Luminous intensity | candela | ed
7 [Amount of substance | mole | mol JEE-Physics ALLEN
13
While defining a base unitor standard for a physical quantity the following characteristics must be considered :
() Welldefined (i) Invariabitity (constancy)
(ii) Accessibilty (easy availability) () Reproducibility (4) Convenience in use
Classification of Units
The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows :
() Fundamental or base units
The units of fundamental quantities are called base units, In I there are seven base units,
(i) Derived units
(iv)
The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of the base units are called
derived units.
unit of distance
eg. unitof speed =
nit of time
‘Some derived units are named in honour of great scientists
2g. _unitof force - newton (N}, unit of frequency - hertz (He), ete,
Supplementary units
InSI two supplementary units are alo defined viz. radian (rad) for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid
angle
radian : 1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by anarc equal in length to the radius
of the circle
Q £
o=- /)
+ steradian : 1 steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere, by that surface of the
sphere which is equal in area to the square of the radius of the sphere.
Solid angle = Fadia?
Practical units
Due to the fixed sizes of SI units, some practical units are also defined for both fundamental and derived
quantities. e.g. light year (ly) isa practical unitof distance (a fundamental quantity) and horse power (hp)
isa practical unit of power (a derived quantity).
Practical units may or may not belong toa particular system of units but can be expressed in any system
of units
E ALLEN’ Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
eg. 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1.6 x 10m = 1.6 x 10%em.
(v) Improper units
‘These are the units whichare not of the same nature as that of the physical quantities for which they are
wed,
.2.g. kg wt san improper unit of weight. Here kgis a unit of mass but itis used to measure the weight
(force).
UNITS OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS
Type of Physical cGs MKS FPS
Physical | Quantity | (Originated in | (Originated in | (Originated in
Quantity France) France) Britain)
Fundamental] Length em m ft
Mass: 3 ‘a 1b
Time s s 5
Derived Force dune newton (ND poundal
[Work or Energy eg joule ft = poundal
Power ergs wait (W) ft poundalis
Conversion factors
To convert a physical quantity from one set of units to the other, the required multiplication factor is called
conversion factor.
Magnitude of a physical quantity = numeric value (n) x unit (u)
While conversion from one set of units to the other the magnitude of the quantity must remain same. Therefore
1
nu, = nyu or nu=constant. or nw —
Thats the numeri¢ value of a physical quantity s inversely proportional to the base unit.
eg. Im = 100em = 3.28ft = 394inch
(s) (CGS) (FPS)
4.4. Dimensions
an
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base quantities are raised to
represent that quantity
Dimensional formula
The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is that expression which represents how and which ofthe base
quantities ae included in that quantity
Itiswrtlenby enclosing the symbol forbase quantities with appropriate powers in square brackets. (]
¢.g. Dimensional formula of massis [M'L’T”] and that of speed (= distance/time) is [M'L'T™]
Dimensional equation
The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called a dimensional
equation, eg. [v= (M'LT)]
For example [F] = [MLT] isa dimensional equation, [MLT +] is the dimensional formula ofthe force and the
dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in lenath and-2 in time
Applications of dimensional analysis
(i) Toconverta physical quantity rom one system of units to the other JEE-Physics
ALLEN
This is based on a fact that magnitude of a physical quantity remains same whatever system is used for
measurementie.
magnitude = numeric value (n) x unit (u) = constant
orn. = nt,
So if a quantity is represented by [M*L'T'] then
sare gz 3
ea Ie ¥
(i) Tocheck the dimensional correctness of a given physical elation :
numerical value in Ilsystem
numerical value in system
uunitof massin Isystem
Uunitof mass in Il system
unitoflengthin system
unit oflengthin system
Uunitoftime in system
Lunitoftime intisystem
Ifina given relation, the terms on both the sides have the same dimensions, then the relation is dimensionally
correct. This is known as the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
(ii) To derive relationship between different physical quantities
Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions new relations among physical quantities can be
derived ifthe dependent quantities are known,
15 ations of this method
‘+ This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication type. The formulae containing
‘exponential, trignometrical and logarithmic functions can't be derived using this method. Formulae
containing more than one term which are added or subtracted like s = ut +at?/2 alo cantt be derived.
‘+The relation derived from this method gives no information about the dimensionless constants
‘SETS OF QUANTITIES HAVING SAME DIMENSIONS
S.No. Quantities Dimensions
1. Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle, phase, [MeL]
distance gradient, relative permeability, relative permittivity, angle of contact,
Reynolds number, coefficient of friction, mechanical equivalent of heat,
cleciic susceptibility, ot.
2 Massand inertia [MLD
3. Momentum and impulse. [ML T3]
4, Thrust, force, Weight, tension, energy gradient. [ML T2]
5. Pressure, stress, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, [M Late
modulus of rigidity, eneray density.
6. Angular momentum and Planck's constant (h). [M LT]
Accelaration, g and gravitational field intensity. [MeL T2]
& Surface tension, free surface energy (energy per unit area), force gradiont, [| ML T=]
spring constant.
9. Latent heat and gravitational potential [MP L?T?]
10. Thermal capacity, Boltzman constant, entropy. [MT]
11. Work, torque, intemal energy, potential eneray, kinetic energy, moment of [MLE]
vi
force, (q7/C), (LP), (aV), (V°C), (FRI), [S. (Vit), (PV), (RT), (mL), (me AT) ALLEN’.
12, Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient, radioactivity,
(il lec} Le]
R
Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
& (JRE) Ge ooo me
14. (VI) (FR), (V4R), Power
DIMENSIONS OF IMPORTANT PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Physical quantity
Momentum
Calorie
Latent heat
Self inductance
Dimensions
Mut
MILT
MILT?
MLeT#At
Coefficient of thermal conductivity M! LK
Power
Impube
METS
Mut
Hole mobility ina semiconductor. M*L"T#At
Physical quantity
Capacitance
Modulus of rigidity
Magnetic permeability
Pressure
Planck’s constant
Solar constant
“Magnetic flax
Currentdensity
Young modulus
Magnetic field intensity
Light year
Permittivity
1, pe
-oE? (6, = permittvi
2p ROE" (ey = permittivity
of free space and E
= electric field)
UNITS OF IMPORTANT PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Bulk modulus of elasticity ML! T?
Potentialeneray MET?
Gravitational constant MeLT?
‘Thermal resistance ML?T36
Cootficient of viscosity MLaT?
Resistance ML TSA
Physical quantity Unit
Anguler acceleration rads?
‘Moment of inertia kgm?
Self inductance henry
Magnetic flex weber
Pole strength. Am
Viscosity pose
Reactance ohm
Specific heat akegC
Strength of magnetic field newton Atm
Astronomical distance pparsec
Physical quantity
Frequency
Resistance
Surface tension
Universal gas constant
Dipole moment
Stefan constant
Permitvity of free space
Planck’s constant
(wee)
cme)
iMLeT]
Dimensions
MeLeTs at
ML T?
MLITAe
MLtT#
MULT!
ML TS
MLT2A?
ML? TQ
Mit T+
MeL? Tea!
Mur
M3 Lo TeAe
ML T+
Unit
kgm? Aes®
ewton/m,
joule K* mol*
coulomb-neter
watt m? K*
coulomb?/Nam®
joule-sec JEE-Physics
ALLER®
Illustration 3.
Solution
Illustration 4.
Solution
Mlustration 5.
Solution
Illustrations
Convert 1 newton (SI unit of fore) into dyne (CGS unit of force)
‘The dimersionalequationof forceis[F] = [M!L! T#]
Therefore ifn,, u,, and n,, u, corresponds to SI & CGS units respectively, then
afM PETE], fee mye]
n= "lMe[lic|[te] ~1 |e |lem|| =| ~2% 1000 x 100% 10"
I newton = 10° dyne,
fc
Check the accuracy ofthe relation T = 2%\{> forasimple pendulum using dimensional analysis.
‘The dimensions of LHS = the dimension of T = [MPL°T']
“The dimensions of RHS
+» 2risa dimensionless const.)
( dimensions of length y
iiensions of accleratio
L ye
(qe) = oy? = May
Since the dimensions are same on both the sides, the relation is cone.
Find relationship between speed of sound ina medium (v), the elastic constant (E) and the density
of the medium (p).
Let the speed depends upon elastic constant & density according to the relation
vacE'p’ or v= KEp* —_K = a dimensionless constant of proportionality
Considering dimensions ofthe quantities [v] = M°LT*
Hforce) (MILT
[E] = [stressl _ [areal wi
(strain) (421 I
Wd wi
~ {p] = {mass/{votume] = [M){L?] = [Mi LT")
< [ph] = [ML®T
Ezquating the dimensions of the LHS and RHS quantities of equation (1), we get
ML IT?) [Ey] = [ML*T*]
IMPLI] = IM LST] [MPL 7) or (MPL T3] = [Me Le
a+b=0, and -2a=-1
Onsolv =ip--) scott id relat «fe
msoking a= 5.b= 5 sotherequiredrebtionisy=K y-
QUESTION BASED ON UNITS & DIMENSIONS,
1. The value of Gravitational constant G in MKS system is 6.67 x 10"! N-mn*/kg? . What will be its value in CGS
system?
2. Name the smallest and largest units of length, ALLEN’ Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
3. Match the type of unit (column A) with its corresponding example (column B)
(A) {B)
(a)Base unit @N
(b)Derived unit (i) bp
(c) Improper unit (ii) kg - we
(d)Practical unit (iv) rad
(e)Supplementary unit (v)_kg
4. Match the following
{Dimensional variable @ ox
(i) Dimensionless vaviable {b) Force
(Gi) Dimensional constant (Angle
(iw) Dimensionless constant (@) Gravitational constant
5. Find the dimensions ofthe following quantities
(a) Temperature (b) Kineticeneray _(c) Pressure (d)Arauiarspeed
6. Find the dimensions of Planck’s constant (h.
7. Centripetal force (F} ona body of mass (m) moving with uniform speed (v} in circle of radius (1) depends upon
m, vand r. Derive a formula for the centripetal force using theory of dimensions.
2.0 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
‘The significant figures (SF) in! measurement are the figures or digits that are known with certainty plus one that
is uncertain, Significant figures ina measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we
have confidence. Larger the number of significant figures obtained ina measurement, greater is its accuracy and
Rules to find out the number of significant figures :
* — TRule = Allthenon-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SE.
* — HRule —: —_Allthezeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5SE.
© IIDRule —: —_Allthe zeros to the leftof first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SE
© IVRule_—: _Ifthenumberis ess than 1, ze10s on the right of the decimal point but to the eft ofthe first
non-zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4SE
© VRule —: —Thetrailing zeros (zero to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number with a decimal
pointare significant. e.g, 01.080 has 4 SE
© VIRule =: © Whenthe numbers expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not affect
the number of S.F For Illustration inx =12,3=1.23 x 10'= 0.123 x 10°
0.0123 x 10°=123 x 10 each term has 3 SF only.
© VITRule Ina number without decimal, zeros to the right of non-zero digit are not significant, but
when same value is recorded on the basis of actual experiment, they becomes significant.
Ex. 15600 has 3 SF but 15600 mA has 5 SF
Illustrations
Illustration 6. Write down the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 1653SF (following rule I) (b) 2.05 3 SF (following rules | & Il)
(c) 34.000 m 5SF (following rules1&V)——(d)-_—(0.005 1 SF (following rules 1 & IV)
(e) 0.02340 m4 SF (following rules I, IV & V) JEE-Physics ALLEN
3.0 ROUNDING OFF
a
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, itis rounded off to
appropriate number of significant figures.
Rules for rounding off the numbers
© TRule Ifthe digitto be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one. e.g.
681-69
@ HRule —: _Ifthedigit tobe rounded offs less than’, than the preceding digits unaffected andi left
unchanged. 9.3.94 ~3.9
. Ii Rule : Ifthe digit to be rounded off is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if itis odd and
is left unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35 = 14.4 and 14.45=14.4
Tilustrations
Illustration 7. The following values can be rounded off to four significant figures as follows
2) 36879 ~ 36.88 («9 > 5 ~.Tisincreased by oneie. TRule)
(b) 1.0084 = 1.008 (4 <5 -.8is leftunchanged ie. MRule)
(} 11.115 = 11.12 {+ last] is odd itis inereased by one
(
(
Mil Rule )
{d) 11.1250 11.12 ~ 2isevenitisleft unchanged i.e. Mule )
} 11.1251 11.13 + 51> 50 -.2isinereased by oneie. _-‘IRule)
« Ione digits rounded off then compare with 5
@ If two digits rounded off then compare with 50.
Ex. 2.360 — 2.4, 2.350 2.4 & 2.250 2.2
@ If three digits rounded off then compare with 500,
Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures
* — Rulel = _Inaddition orsubtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the
‘number of decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser number of
decimal places. e.g. 12,587 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (-~ second term contain lesser i.e, one
decimal place)
© Rulell In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the
smallest number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 5.0 x 0.125 = 0.625 = 0.62
Note : First cary outactual addition or subtraction then round off.
4.0 ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
a
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This power is determined
after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off, the last digit is simply ignored if itis loss
than 5 and, is increased by one if itis 5 or more than 5.
Illustrations
Illustration 8, Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows :
fa) 49 = 4.9 x 10'=10" *. Order of magnitude = 1
(b) 51 51x 10'~10° — .. Orderof magnitude = 2
{e} 0.049 4.9x10%=10% — », Order of magnitude = -2
(d) 0.050 5.0 x 10%=107 ~. Order of magnitude = -1
fe) 0.051 == 51x 10% 10 +. Order of magnitude = -1
Mlustration 9. The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 em respectively.
Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct number of significant figures.
10 E Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
ALLEN®.
Solution # Lenath (0) = 4.234m ‘© Breadth (b) = 1,005 m
# Thickness (t] = 2.01 em = 2.01 x 10%m
Therefore areacfthe sheet =2(¢x b+ bx t+tx #)
= 2( 4.25517 + 0.020205 + 0.0851034)
(4.255 + 0.0202 + 0.0851)
(4.360) = 8.7206 = 8.721
Since area can contain a maxiinum of 3 SF (Rule Il of article 2) therefore, rounding off, we get :
Area = 8.72 m?
Like wise volume = ¢ x b x t= 4.234 x 1,005 x 0.0201 m® = 0.0855289 m®
Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore, rounding off, we get : Volume = 0.0855 n°
Question based on Significant Figures
1, The emror in the measurement of volume of sphere is 1.5%. the enor in the measurement of its diameter is
(Ay 1% (B) 2% (C) 0.5%, (D) 1.5%
2. Inarithmetic 17.8 x 3.1143 = 55.4354, But as a result of experimental measurements the best way to
express the product is~
(a) 55.3454 (B) 55.4 (c) 55.44 (0) 55.435
3. Write the following in scientific notation =
(0) 3256 (b) 0010 (c} 50000 g (5 SF) (40.3204
4. Give the number of significant figures in the following
(@)0.165 (0) 4.0026 (c)o.028 (a) 165
(e) 0.050 (9) 2.653 x 10° (q) 6.02 x 10° (hj 0.006032,
5. Calculate area enclosed by a circle of diameter 1.06 m to comect number of significant figures.
6. Subtract2.5 x 10" from 3.9 x. 10° and give the answer to correct number of significant figures.
7. The mass of a box measured by a grocers balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g and
20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) total mass of the box (b) the difference in masses of gold pieces to
correct significant figures.
5.0 ERROR IN MEASUREMENTS
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the enor of measurement
5.1. Classification of Errors
Envors may arise from different sources andare usually classified as follows +=
Systematic or Controllable errors
Systematic erors are the errors whose causes are known. They can be either positive or negative. Due to the
known causes these errors can be minimised, Systematic errors can further be classified into three categories
() Instrumental errors : These ertors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufacture or misuse of
the measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate instruments,
Gi) Environmental errors : These errors are due to the changes in external environmental conditions such,
as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or magnetic and electrostatic fields.
(ii) Observational errors : Those errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatts or carelessness in
taking observations. Ex. parallax error.
E 1 JEE-Physics ALLEN®
. Random Errors : These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur irregularly and are variable
jin magnitude and sign. Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely they can not be eliminated
completely. For Illustration, when the same person repeats the same observation in the same conditions, he may
get different readings at different times.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the observation a large number of times and taking the arithmetic
mean of all the observations. This mean value would be very close to the most accurate reading.
Note :- If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to (1/n) times.
Ex. : If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is x’ then the random error in the arithmetic
mean of 500 observations will be x/5.
© Gross Errors : Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in reading the instruments or
calculating and recording the measurement results
Forlllustration: (i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
(i) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions.
(ii) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations,
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations.
‘These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer.
5.2. Representation of Errors
Enors can be expressed in the following ways =
Absolute Error (Aa) : The difference between the true value and the individual measured value of the quantity
is called the absolute error of the measurement, Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the
measured values are ay, 2g, yen
~ _ayta,tayt
The arithmetic mean (a,,) of these valuesis @q =
ae a,
Ifthe rue value ofthe quantity isnot given then mean value (ay) ean be taken as the true value,
Then the absolute errors in the individual measured values are —
day = 9,3
=
‘The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (Aa),,, or Ba ofthe
sn |g
[oil + a Wl AS
So, ifthe measured value of a quantity be ‘a’ and the error in measurement be Aa, then the true value (a) can
bewrittenas a, = ada
—
value of the physical quantity a, (Aa),, =
5.3. Relative or Fractional Error
Itis defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error ((Aa),, or Aa) to the true value or the mean value (a, or &)
of the quantity measured,
Mean absohte enor _ (Aa), 3s
Meanvae 8,
When the relative errors expressed in percentage, itis known as percentage error,
Relative or fractional error =
Percentage ertor = relative error x 100 parentage error 22M 2050S SOF 1995 = M8 100%
5.4 Propagation of Errors in Mathematical Operations
(a) Ifx =a +b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurements of x will be
Ax = Aa + Ab
12 E ALLEN’.
(b)
(c}
(a
e)
Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
Ifx = ab, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurement of x will be Ax = Aa + Ab
lx = © then the maximum possible fractional errorwillbo 9-48 4 AP
& xa tb
Ifx= 0" then the maximum possible fractionalenorwillte “= n2®
"0 bx
lex then the maximum possible fractional errr willbe
Tilustrations
Illustration 10. Following observations were taken witha vernier calipers while measuring the lenath of a cylinder:
Solution
3.29 cm, 3.280m, 3.29cm, 331cm, 3.28cm, 327m, 329m, 3.30 cm. Then find:
(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder. (b) Absolute error in each observation.
(c) Mean absolute error (d) Relative error (e) Percentage error
Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.
fe). Most accurate length ofthe eyinderwillbethe mean length (2) = 3.28875 em = 3.29 em
{b) Absolute error in the fist reading 3.29-3.29 = 0.00em
Absolute error in the second reading = 3.29-3.28 = 0.01 em
Absolute errorin the third reading = 3.29-3.29 = 0,00 em
Absolute errorin theforth reading = 3.39-3.31 =-0.02 cm
Absolute error in the fifth reading = 3.29 - 0.01 em
Absolute errorin thesixth reading = 3.29-3.27 = 0.02 em
Absolute error inthe seventh reading = 3.29-3,29 = 0.00cm
Absolute errorinthe lst reading = 3.29-3.80 = -0.01 cm
0.00 + 0.01 +0.00 +0.02 +0.01+0.02 +0.00+0.01
5
0.01em
(€) Mean absolute error =
= 221 — 0,0030395,
(@)_ Relative error in length, a
0.008
x 100 =0.003
x 100
(e) Percentage error %
So length = 3.29 em + 0,01 em (in terms of absolute error}
= (=3.29em = 0.30% (in terms of percentage error )
Mlustration 11. The initial and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6 + 0.2)°C and
Solution
(78.3 + 0.3)°C. Calculate the rise in temperature,
Given 0, = (40.6 + 0.2)°C and 0, =(78.3 + 0.3)°C
Rise in temperature 0 3-406 = 37.7C. a¢
+ 05°C
Rise in temperature = (37.7 = 0.5)°C
(a0, + 40,) = + (0.2 +03)
Illustration 12. The length and breadth of a rectangle are (5.7 * 0.1) em and (3.4 = 0.2) cm.
Calculate area of the rectangle with error limits.
Given f= (5.7 + 0.1) em andb = (3.4 + 0.2) em
xb
Solution
Awa A 7x 3.4 = 19.38 em?
BA )=2(Q4.22)-1(22tet34) 1.48
A 6.734) 57x34
1.48 1.48
SAARI S GA Hig gg X 19.98 = #148 «Arca = (19.38 = 1.48) sqm
13 JEE-Physics ALLEN?
Illustration 13. A body travels uniformly a distance (13.8 + 0.2) m ina time (4.0 + 0.3) s, Calculate its velocity
with error limits. What is the percentage error in velocity ?
Solution Given distance s = (13.8 + 0.2) m and time t=(4.0 + 0.3) s,
velocity v= 5 =F =3.45ms*=3.5ms7
be (2 a) (isziroa ye (288434). 4.49
13.8 ° 4.0) “\13.8x4.0) ~13.8x4.0
ie = 0.0895 x v= + 0.0895 x 3.45 = = 0.3087 0.31
ev = (3.5 + 0.31) ms”
=+ 0.0895
Percentage erorin velocity =“ x 100 = + 0,0895 x 100 = = 895% = = 9%
Mlustration 14. A thin copper wire of lnath L increase in length by 2% when heated from T, 18. Ia copper cube
having side 10 Lis heated from T, oT, what willbe the percentage change in
{area of one face of the cube {i volume ofthe cube,
Sol. () Awa A=1OLx 10L= 10017,
change inarea = * x 100 = 2x Fx 100 =2x 2% = 4%
(i) Volume V=10L 10L x 10L=1000L
9% change in volume = “Sx 100=.8 x SE 5100 = 3 x 2% = 6%
Conclusion : The maximum percentage change willbe observed in volume, lesserin area and
the least (minimum) change willbe observed in lenath or radius.
Error Analysis
1. The pressure P and volume V of a gas arerelated as PV" = K whore Kis a constant. The percentage inerease in
the pressure for decreasing the volume by 0.5% :-
(a)0.25% (B)0.75% (c)1.50% (D)0.50%
2. A physical quantity Q is calculated according to the expression Q = I peroentage errors in A, B, Cand
cD
Date 2%, 1%, 3% and 4% respectively then maximum percentage error in Qis =
(aya% (B)10% (c)14% (12%,
3. _ Inanexperimentto determine the specific resistance p of a material, the following data was obtained. Resistance,
mR
= (64 + 2)0, length, ¢ =(156.0 + 0.1) em, radius, r = (0.26 + 0.02) em. Given p «find the
percentage error in p.
(a) 18.52% (B)18.00% (C) 17.52%, (D)19.52%
4. Awire has a mass (0.3 + 0.003) g, radius (
percentage error in the measurement of its density is~
(ay (B)2 3 (04
005) mm and length (6 + 0.06) em. The maximum
5. Astudlent measures the distance traversed in free fall of a body, intially at rest ina given time. He uses this data
{o-estimate g, the acceleration due to gravity. I the maximum percentage errors in measurement ofthe distance
and the time are e, and e, respectively, the percentage error in the estimation of gis:-
(A) e; + 2e, {B) ey + e (C) e; - 2e, {D) e, =e
14 E ALLEN’ Unit Dimension & Error Analysis
6. Aphysical quantity X is related to four measurable quantities a, b, ¢ and das follows
Xa PO d*
‘The percentage error in the measurement of a, b, cand d are 1%, 2%, 2% and 4% respectively. What is
the percentage error in quantity X?
(a) 15% (B)17% (c)21% (0) 23%,
Mal
7. The Young meduls () ofa materials given by the relation ¥ = M3. the percentage erersin W(=Ma)L,
rand (are 0.5%, 1%, 3% and 4% respectively, whatis the percentage error in Y?
(a)10.53% (B)16.50% (C)1Ls% (45%
8 Calculate the focal length (f) of a spherical mimor from the following caleulations : u=(50.1 + 0.5jem,
v= (20.1 + 0.2)em. Given #=2+2
(A) 043 + O4jem —(B) (153+ 1.4)em —(C) (12.5 + OBJem —_(B) (13.8 + O2)em
9. The heat generated in a circuits dependent upon the resistance, current and fime for which the currents flown.
I the errorin measuring the above are as 1%, 2% and 1% the maximum error in measuring heat will be
(ay2% (B)3% (6% (D)1%
10. The percentage errors in the measurement of massand speed are 2% arr] 3% respectively. How much will be the
‘maximum error in the estimate of kinetic eneray obtained by measuring mass an speed ?
(ay11 % (B89 (15% (1%
E 15 JEE-Physics ALLEN?
© Teavoid the confusion regarding the trailing zeros of the numbers without the decimal point the best way is to
report every measurement in scientificnofation (in the power of 10). In this notation every number is expressed
inthe forma x 10°, where ais the base number between 1 and 10 and b is any positive or negative exponentof
10. The base number (a) is written in decimal form with the decimal after the first digity While counting the
number of SF only base number is considered (Rule VI).
© The change in the unit of measurement of a quantity does not affect the number of SF
For Illustration in 2.308 cm = 23.08 mm = 0.02308 m each term has 4 SE
© Whena numberis divided by 10° (where xis the order of the number) the result will akways lie between 0.5 and
5, ie.0.5