Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

3rd Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2014

Chapter 9
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW
Lecture slides by
Mehmet Kanoglu

Copyright © 2014 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The fundamental differential equations of fluid motion are derived in
this chapter, and we show how to solve them analytically for some
simple flows. More complicated flows, such as the air flow induced 0
by a tornado shown here, cannot be solved exactly.
 Objectives
• Understand how the differential equation of
conservation of mass and the differential linear
momentum equation are derived and applied
• Calculate the stream function and pressure field,
and plot streamlines for a known velocity field
• Obtain analytical solutions of the equations of
motion for simple flow fields

0
9–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
The control volume technique is useful when
we are interested in the overall features of a
flow, such as mass flow rate into and out of the
control volume or net forces applied to bodies.
Differential analysis, on the other hand, involves
application of differential equations of fluid
motion to any and every point in the flow field
over a region called the flow domain.
Boundary conditions for the variables must be
specified at all boundaries of the flow domain,
including inlets, outlets, and walls.
If the flow is unsteady, we must march our
solution along in time as the flow field changes.

(a) In control volume analysis, the interior of

the control volume is treated like a black box,
but (b) in differential analysis, all the details of
the flow are solved at every point 0
within the flow domain.
9–2 ■ CONSERVATION OF MASS—THE
CONTINUITY EQUATION

The net rate of change of mass within the

control volume is equal to the rate at
which mass flows into the control volume
minus the rate at which mass flows out of
the control volume.

To derive a differential
conservation equation, we
imagine shrinking a control
0
volume to infinitesimal size.
Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
The quickest and most straightforward way to derive the differential form of
conservation of mass is to apply the divergence theorem (Gauss’s theorem).

This equation is the compressible form of the continuity

equation since we have not assumed incompressible
flow. It is valid at any point in the flow domain.

0
 Derivation Using an Infinitesimal
Control Volume
At locations away from the center of the
box, we use a Taylor series expansion
about the center of the box.

A small box-shaped control

volume centered at point P
is used for derivation of the
differential equation for
conservation of mass in
Cartesian coordinates; the
blue dots indicate the center
of each face.

0
The mass flow rate through
a surface is equal to VnA.

The inflow or outflow of mass

through each face of the differential
control volume; the blue dots
indicate the center of each face.

0
The divergence
operation in Cartesian
and cylindrical
coordinates. 0
Fuel and air being
compressed by a piston
in a cylinder of an
internal combustion
engine. 0
0
 Nondimensional
density as a
function of
nondimensional
time for Example 0
9–1.
Alternative Form of the
Continuity Equation

As a material element moves

through a flow field, its density
changes according to Eq. 9–10.

0
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates

Velocity components and unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates: (a) two-

dimensional flow in the xy- or r -plane, (b) three-dimensional flow. 0
Special Cases of the Continuity Equation

Special Case 1: Steady Compressible Flow

0
 Special Case 2:
Incompressible
Flow

The disturbance from

an explosion is not
felt until the shock
wave reaches the 0
observer.
Converging duct, designed
for a high-speed wind
tunnel (not to scale).

0
0
Streamlines for the
converging duct of
Example 9–2.
0
0
 The continuity
equation can be used
to find a missing 0
velocity component.
0
Streamlines and velocity profiles for (a) a line vortex flow and
0
(b) a spiraling line vortex/sink flow.
0
 Discussion The final
result is general—not
limited to Cartesian
coordinates. It applies
to unsteady as well as
steady flows.

(a) In an incompressible flow

field, fluid elements may
translate, distort, and rotate,
but they do not grow or
shrink in volume; (b) in a
compressible flow field, fluid
elements may grow or shrink
in volume as they translate,
distort, and rotate.
0
0
9–3 ■ THE STREAM FUNCTION
The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates

Incompressible, two-dimensional stream

function in Cartesian coordinates:
stream
function

There are several definitions of

the stream function, depending
on the type of flow under
consideration as well as the
coordinate system being used. 0
Curves of constant
stream function
represent streamlines
of the flow.

Curves of constant
are streamlines of
the flow.

0
0
Streamlines for the velocity
field of Example 9–8; the
value of constant is
indicated for each streamline,
and velocity vectors are 0
shown at four locations.
0
0
Streamlines for the
velocity field of Example
9–9; the value of
constant is indicated
for each streamline.

0
The difference in the value of from one
streamline to another is equal to the
volume flow rate per unit width between
the two streamlines.

(a) Control volume

bounded by
streamlines 1 and
2 and slices A
and B in the xy-
plane; (b) magnified
view of the region
around infinitesimal
length ds.
0
 The value of increases to the left of
the direction of flow in the xy-plane.

Illustration of the “left-

side convention.” In the
xy-plane, the value of
the stream function
always increases to the
left of the flow direction.
In the figure, the stream function increases to the left of the flow direction,
regardless of how much the flow twists and turns.
When the streamlines are far apart (lower right of figure), the magnitude of velocity
(the fluid speed) in that vicinity is small relative to the speed in locations where the
streamlines are close together (middle region).
This is because as the streamlines converge, the cross-sectional area between
them decreases, and the velocity must increase to maintain the flow rate between
the streamlines.
0
Streaklines produced by Hele–
Shaw flow over an inclined
plate. The streaklines model
streamlines of potential flow
(Chap. 10) over a two-
dimensional inclined plate of
the same cross-sectional 0
shape.
Streamlines for free-
stream flow along a wall
with a narrow suction slot;
streamline values are
shown in units of m2/s; the
thick streamline is the
dividing streamline. The
direction of the velocity
vector at point A is
determined by the left-side
convention.
0
0
The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates

Flow over an axisymmetric

body in cylindrical
coordinates with rotational
symmetry about the z-axis;
neither the geometry nor
the velocity field depend on
0
, and u = 0.
Streamlines for the velocity
field of Example 9–12, with
K = 10 m2/s and C = 0; the
value of constant is
indicated for several
streamlines. 0
The Compressible Stream Function

0
9–4 ■ THE DIFFERENTIAL LINEAR MOMENTUM
EQUATION—CAUCHY’S EQUATION

Positive components of the stress

tensor in Cartesian coordinates on the
positive (right, top, and front) faces of
an infinitesimal rectangular control
volume. The blue dots indicate the
center of each face. Positive
components on the negative (left,
bottom, and back) faces are in the
opposite direction of those shown here.
0
 Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem

An extended form of the divergence theorem Cauchy’s equation is a differential form of

is useful not only for vectors, but also for the linear momentum equation. It applies to
tensors. In the equation, Gij is a second-order any type of fluid.
tensor, V is a volume, and A is the surface 0
area that encloses and defines the volume.
Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume

Inflow and outflow of

the x-component of
linear momentum
through each face of
an infinitesimal
control volume; the
blue dots indicate the
center of each face.

0
The gravity vector is not
necessarily aligned with
any particular axis, in
general, and there are
three components of the
body force acting on an 0
infinitesimal fluid element.
Sketch illustrating the surface forces acting in the x-
direction due to the appropriate stress tensor component
on each face of the differential control volume; the blue
dots indicate the center of each face.

0
0
Alternative Form of Cauchy’s Equation

0
Derivation Using Newton’s
Second Law

If the differential fluid

element is a material
element, it moves with the
flow and Newton’s second
law applies directly.

0
9–5 ■ THE NAVIER–STOKES EQUATION
Introduction

ij, called the

viscous stress
tensor or the
deviatoric stress
tensor

Mechanical pressure is the mean normal

stress acting inwardly on a fluid element.

For fluids at rest, the only

stress on a fluid element is
the hydrostatic pressure,
which always acts inward 0
and normal to any surface.
Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids
Rheology: The study of the deformation
of flowing fluids.
Newtonian fluids: Fluids for which the
shear stress is linearly proportional to
the shear strain rate.
Newtonian fluids: Fluids for which the
shear stress is not linearly related to the
shear strain rate.
Viscoelastic: A fluid that returns (either
fully or partially) to its original shape
after the applied stress is released.
Rheological behavior of fluids—shear Some non-Newtonian fluids are called
stress as a function of shear strain rate. shear thinning fluids or pseudoplastic
fluids, because the more the fluid is
sheared, the less viscous it becomes.
In some fluids a finite stress called the
yield stress is required before the fluid Plastic fluids are those in which the
begins to flow at all; such fluids are shear thinning effect is extreme.
called Bingham plastic fluids.
0
Shear thickening fluids or dilatant fluids: The more the
fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes.

When an engineer falls into quicksand (a

dilatant fluid), the faster he tries to move,
the more viscous the fluid becomes.
0
Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for
Incompressible, Isothermal Flow

The incompressible flow

approximation implies constant
density, and the isothermal
approximation implies constant
viscosity.

0
The Laplacian operator, shown
here in both Cartesian and
cylindrical coordinates, appears
in the viscous term of the
incompressible Navier–Stokes
equation. 0
 The Navier–Stokes equation is an
unsteady, nonlinear, secondorder, partial
differential equation.
Equation 9–60 has four unknowns (three
velocity components and pressure), yet it
represents only three equations (three
components since it is a vector equation).
Obviously we need another equation to
make the problem solvable. The fourth
equation is the incompressible continuity
The Navier–Stokes equation is the
equation (Eq. 9–16). 0
cornerstone of fluid mechanics.
Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in
Cartesian Coordinates

0
Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in
Cylindrical Coordinates

0
An alternative
form for the first
two viscous
terms in the r-
and -
components of
the Navier–
Stokes equation.

0
9–6 ■ DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
OF FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS
There are two types of problems for which the differential equations (continuity
and Navier–Stokes) are useful:
• Calculating the pressure field for a known velocity field
• Calculating both the velocity and pressure fields for a flow of known geometry
and known boundary conditions

A general three-dimensional
but incompressible flow field
with constant properties
requires four equations to
solve for four unknowns. 0
Calculation of the Pressure Field for a
Known Velocity Field
The first set of examples involves calculation of the pressure
field for a known velocity field.
Since pressure does not appear in the continuity equation, we
can theoretically generate a velocity field based solely on
conservation of mass.
However, since velocity appears in both the continuity
equation and the Navier–Stokes equation, these two
equations are coupled.
In addition, pressure appears in all three components of the
Navier–Stokes equation, and thus the velocity and pressure
fields are also coupled.
This intimate coupling between velocity and pressure enables
us to calculate the pressure field for a known velocity field.

0
0
0
For a two-dimensional flow
field in the xy-plane, cross-
differentiation reveals
whether pressure P is a
smooth function. 0
0
The velocity field in an incompressible flow is
not affected by the absolute magnitude of
pressure, but only by pressure differences.

Since pressure
appears only as a
gradient in the
incompressible
Navier–Stokes
equation, the absolute
magnitude of pressure
is not relevant—only
pressure differences
matter.

Filled pressure contour plot, velocity vector

plot, and streamlines for downward flow of air
through a channel with blockage: (a) case 1;
(b) case 2—identical to case 1, except P is
everywhere increased by 500 Pa. On the
gray-scale contour plots, dark is low pressure
0
and light is high pressure.
0
Streamlines and
velocity profiles for
a line vortex.
0
0
For a two-dimensional
flow field in the r -plane,
cross-differentiation
reveals whether pressure 0
P is a smooth function.
0
The two-dimensional line
vortex is a simple
approximation of a
tornado; the lowest
pressure is at the center
of the vortex.

0
Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Boundary Conditions
Navier–Stokes Equations

A piston moving at speed VP in a cylinder.

A thin film of oil is sheared between the
piston and the cylinder; a magnified view of
the oil film is shown. The no-slip boundary
Procedure for solving the condition requires that the velocity of fluid
incompressible continuity and adjacent to a wall equal that of the wall.
Navier–Stokes equations. 0
At an interface between two
fluids, the velocity of the two
fluids must be equal. In addition,
the shear stress parallel to the
interface must be the same in
both fluids.

Along a horizontal free surface of

water and air, the water and air
velocities must be equal and the
shear stresses must match.
However, since air << water, a
good approximation is that the
shear stress at the water surface is
negligibly small.
0
 Other boundary conditions arise
depending on the problem setup.
For example, we often need to define
inlet boundary conditions at a boundary
of a flow domain where fluid enters the
domain.
Likewise, we define outlet boundary
conditions at an outflow.
Boundary conditions along a plane of Symmetry boundary conditions are
symmetry are defined so as to ensure useful along an axis or plane of
that the flow field on one side of the symmetry.
symmetry plane is a mirror image of For unsteady flow problems we also
that on the other side, as shown here need to define initial conditions (at the
for a horizontal symmetry plane. starting time, usually t = 0).
0
Geometry of Example 9–
15: viscous flow between
two infinite plates; upper
plate moving and lower
plate stationary.

0
A fully developed region of a flow field is
a region where the velocity profile does
not change with downstream distance.
Fully developed flows are encountered
in long, straight channels and pipes.
Fully developed Couette flow is shown
here—the velocity profile at x2 is
identical to that at x1.
0
0
0
For incompressible flow fields
without free surfaces, hydrostatic
pressure does not contribute to the
dynamics of the flow field.

0
The linear velocity
profile of Example 9–15:
Couette flow between
parallel plates.

0
Stresses acting on a
differential two-
dimensional rectangular
fluid element whose
bottom face is in contact
with the bottom plate of
Example 9–15.

0
A rotational viscometer; the
inner cylinder rotates at
angular velocity , and a
torque Tapplied is applied,
from which the viscosity of
the fluid is calculated.

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
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Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows
Poiseuille flow approximations hold true for standard pipe flow with most water
systems.
However, when applied to blood flow in the human body, the approximations
must be closely monitored and evaluated for their applicability.
Traditionally as a first-order attempt, cardiovascular fluid dynamists have used
the Poiseuille flow derivation to understand blood flow in arteries.
This can provide the engineer only with a first-order approximation for the
velocity and flow rate.
It is important to examine the main approximations used to arrive at Poiseuille
flow.
Let’s retain the basic approximations about the fluid, or blood in this case.
The fluid will remain incompressible, the flow will continue to be laminar, and
gravity remains negligible.
The approximation of fully developed flow will also remain, though in reality this
is not applicable in the cardiovascular system.
Based on only these approximations, this leaves the other main approximations
of steady, parallel, axisymmetric Newtonian flow, and the pipe approximated as
a rigid circular tube. 0
The flow waveform created during ejection from a
ventricular assist device in a mock circulatory loop. This is
similar to the waveform created during left ventricular
ejection.

0
An anatomical figure
illustrating the ascending aorta,
aortic arch, and descending
aorta coming from the left
ventricle (on the backside of
the heart in this view). The
illustration demonstrates how
the aorta moves toward the
spinal cord.

0
Therefore, fundamentally to model blood flow through the arteries, the steady
flow approximation is inappropriate, making modeling blood flow as Poiseuille
flow unsuitable for just this one approximation alone. There is a rapid
acceleration and deceleration of flow within a short time period (~300 ms).

The rigid, circular tube approximation is equally as inappropriate when

applied to cardiovascular blood flow.

With respect to parallel flow and axisymmetric flow, these both can be
invalidated as inappropriate approximations applied to blood flow, by focusing
on one location of the cardiovascular system.

It should be mentioned that flow within the capillaries is not Poisueille

flow since the red blood cells have to squeeze into these vessels and what
results is a two-phase flow where a red blood cell is followed by plasma,
which is in turn followed by a red blood cell; this continues, creating a
unique flow field to facilitate oxygen and nutrient exchange. Finally, blood
is not Newtonian, as illustrated in Example 9–20.

0
0
0
Assuming all values are
the same in the velocity
equations and the pipe is
the same diameter, the
pseudoplastic fluid
causes the velocity
profile to be more blunt
compared to the
parabolic profile
generated for a
Newtonian fluid.

0
 Summary
• Introduction
• Conservation of mass-The continuity equation
• Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
• Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
• Alternative Form of the Continuity Equation
• Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
• Special Cases of the Continuity Equation
• The stream function
• The Stream Function in Cartesian Coordinates
• The Stream Function in Cylindrical Coordinates
• The Compressible Stream Function
• The differential linear momentum equation-Cauchy’s
equation
• Derivation Using the Divergence Theorem
• Derivation Using an Infinitesimal Control Volume
• Alternative Form of Cauchy’s Equation
• Derivation Using Newton’s Second Law

0
• The Navier-Stokes equation
• Introduction
• Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids
• Derivation of the Navier–Stokes Equation for
Incompressible, Isothermal Flow
• Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in
Cartesian Coordinates
• Continuity and Navier–Stokes Equations in
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Differential analysis of fluid flow problems
• Calculation of the Pressure Field for a Known
Velocity Field
• Exact Solutions of the Continuity and Navier–
Stokes Equations
• Differential Analysis of Biofluid Mechanics Flows