Chapter 2

Foundations of Individual Behavior

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 Chapter Learning Objectives
◈ After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Contrast the two types of ability.
Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance
to OB.
Identify the key biographical characteristics and
describe how they are relevant to OB.
Define learning and outline the principles of the three
major theories of learning.
Define shaping, and show how it can be used in OB.
Show how culture affects our understanding of
intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and
learning.
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 Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks
in a job.
◈Made up of two sets of factors:
Intellectual Abilities
◈ The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
◈ General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall
intelligence.
◈ Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for
recruitment screening.
◈ No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
Physical Abilities
◈ The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength,
and similar characteristics.
https://www.wonderlictestprep.com/wonderlic-personality-tests#
w-pci 2-2
Dimensions of Intellectual
Ability
Numbe
r
Aptitud Verbal
Memor e Compr
y ehensi
on

Intellectual
Spatial Ability Percept
Visualiz ual
ation Speed

Deduct Inducti
ive ve
Reason Reason
ing ing

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Nine Basic Physical Abilities
◈ Strength Factors
Dynamic strength
Trunk strength
Static strength
Explosive strength
◈ Flexibility Factors
Extent flexibility
Dynamic flexibility
◈ Other Factors
Body coordination
Balance
Stamina
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 Biographical Characteristics
Objective and easily obtained personal
characteristics.
◈Age
Older workers bring experience, judgment, a
strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
◈Gender
Few differences between men and women that
affect job performance.
◈Race (the biological heritage used to
identify oneself)
Contentious issue: differences exist, but could
be more culture-based than race-based. 2-5
 Other Biographical
Characteristics
◈ Tenure
People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive,
absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.
◈ Religion
Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-9/11
world.
◈ Sexual Orientation
Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local
laws may).
Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.
◈ Gender Identity
Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

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 Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience
◈Learning components:

Is
Is
Acquired
Involves Relatively
Through
Change Permanen
Experienc
t
e

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◈
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some
stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.
◈ Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior
leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
◈ Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience.

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 Classical Conditioning
◈ Pavlov’s Dog Drool
◈ Key Concepts:
Unconditioned stimulus
◈ A naturally occurring phenomenon.
Unconditioned response
◈ The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
◈ An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
Conditioned response
◈ The response to the artificial stimulus.
This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary –
not the best theory for OB learning.

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 Operant Conditioning
◈ B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior follows
stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
◈ Key Concepts:
Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned, not
reflexive.
Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can
increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior repetition.
Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.
Rewards are most effective immediately after performance.
Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be repeated.

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 Social-Learning Theory
◈ Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly: by
observation, reading, or just hearing about someone else’s – a
model’s – experiences.
◈ Key Concepts:
Attentional processes
◈ Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn.
Retention processes
◈ Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned.
Motor reproduction processes
◈ Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing.
Reinforcement processes
◈ Positive incentives motivate learners.

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 Shaping: A Managerial Tool
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an
individual closer to the desired response.
◈Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:
Positive reinforcement
◈ Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)
Negative reinforcement
◈ Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs
(learning)
Punishment
◈ Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior
(“unlearning”)
Extinction
◈ Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
(“unlearning”)

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 Schedules of Reinforcement: A
Critical Issue
◈ Two Major Types:
Continuous Reinforcement
◈ A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated
Intermittent Reinforcement
◈ A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior
worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated
◈ Multiple frequencies

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Types of Intermittent
Reinforcement
◈Ratio
Depends on the number of responses made.
◈ Interval
Depends on the time between
reinforcements.
◈ Fixed
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals
or after a set number of responses.
◈ Variable
Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary
relative to the behavior.

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 Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio

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 Behavior Modification (OB
the work setting
Mod)
The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in

◈Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model

1 • Identify critical behaviors

2 • Develop baseline data
• Identify behavioral
3
consequences
4 • Develop and apply intervention
• Evaluate performance
5
improvement 2-16
 Problems with OB Mod and
Reinforcement
◈ OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.
◈ OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve
thinking and feeling.
◈ Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping
behavior.

Modern managers and

OB theorists are using
cognitive approaches to
shaping behavior.

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◈
Global
Intellectual Abilities
Implications
Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across
cultures.
◈ Biographical Characteristics
Not much evidence on the global relevance of the relationships
described in this chapter.
Countries do vary dramatically on their biographical
composition.
◈ Learning
Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot
generalize at this point.

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 Summary and Managerial
Implications
◈ Three Individual Variables:
Ability
◈ Directly influences employees level of performance.
◈ Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, and
transfer.
◈ Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities.
Biographical Characteristics
◈ Should not be used in management decisions: possible source of
bias.
Learning
◈ Observable change in behavior = learning.
◈ Reinforcement works better than punishment.
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