Sense/reference/denotation/connotation

In simple terms, the word "meaning" can be tricky. To make it clearer, we can separate a word's meaning
into two parts: its sense and its referent (or reference). Here, we'll focus on nouns, though these ideas
also apply to other parts of speech.

 Sense: This is the general idea or concept behind the word. It's what you typically find in a
dictionary definition.
 Referent: This is the specific thing or object a word is referring to in a particular situation.

For example, in the sentence:

 If I’m talking about an event at Buckingham Palace in 2009, "queen" refers to Queen Elizabeth II,
and "table" refers to a specific piece of furniture at the palace.
 But if I’m talking about Queen Margrethe of Denmark, then "queen" and "table" have different
meanings—they refer to Margrethe and a piece of Danish furniture.

So, every time the sentence is used, the words "queen" and "table" point to a specific thing, depending on
the context.

A word’s referent is the specific thing, person, or place it represents in a particular situation, and it
changes depending on the context. For example, when we use the word "queen," its referent might be
Queen Elizabeth II in one situation, and Queen Margrethe of Denmark in another.

However, a word’s sense remains the same, no matter what referent is involved. For example, the sense
of "queen" could be ‘female reigning monarch,’ which stays the same even if we’re talking about
different queens. But the word "queen" can have different senses too, depending on the situation. For
instance, in a game of chess, "queen" means ‘the second highest-ranking piece,’ and in a game of bridge,
it means ‘the third highest card in a suit.’ So, the referent and sense can both change based on the context.

On the other hand, denotation refers to the overall category of things a word can represent. For example,
the word "queen" can refer to many different queens, and "table" can refer to many different tables, but
the overall meaning of the word is its denotation.

Reference is the act a speaker performs when they use a word to point to a specific referent. For example,
if I say, "Dr. Schreber suffered his first illness in 1884," I am making reference to Dr. Schreber, his
illness, and the time, 1884. The words only have those specific referents because of my act of reference.

But reference can sometimes fail. For example, if I say, "I saw that cat again," and you don’t know which
cat I’m referring to, my reference is not successful, even though I may have meant a particular cat.

In this book, we make a distinction between reference and denotation, even though some writers
use them interchangeably.
 Denotation: This is the group of all possible things or situations that a word can refer to.
For example, the denotation of the word "queen" includes all queens, in general.

 Reference: This term has two meanings:

2. The referent itself: The specific object or thing the word refers to at a particular
moment. So, when I say "the queen" in a conversation, the referent could be
Queen Elizabeth II, and that is the reference in this case.

In this book, we won't use different terms for these two meanings of reference. Instead, we'll rely
on the context to make it clear whether reference means the act of referring or the actual object
being referred to.

Connotation refers to the additional meanings or feelings that a word carries, beyond its literal meaning
(sense) and what it refers to (reference). It’s about the emotional tone, formality, or other subtleties
attached to a word. For example, "police officer" and "cop" may refer to the same person (similar
denotation), but "cop" has a more casual, possibly negative connotation, while "police officer" is more
formal and neutral.

Some other pairs of words with different connotations might be:

 House vs. Home: Both refer to a place where people live (similar denotation), but "home" carries
a warmer, more personal emotional tone, while "house" is more neutral and straightforward.
 Stubborn vs. Determined: Both can describe someone who doesn’t easily change their mind
(similar sense), but "stubborn" often has a negative connotation, implying obstinacy, while
"determined" has a positive, goal-focused connotation.
 Cheap vs. Inexpensive: Both refer to something low in cost (similar denotation), but "cheap"
often implies poor quality, while "inexpensive" sounds more neutral or even positive.
 Slim vs. Skinny: Both refer to someone who is thin (similar denotation), but "slim" usually has a
more positive or neutral connotation, while "skinny" can have a negative or unhealthy
connotation.
 Frugal vs. Cheap: Both can describe someone who avoids spending money, but "frugal" has a
more positive, sensible connotation, while "cheap" often implies being overly tight with money in
an unappealing way.

As for whether these pairs have different senses: In most cases, they don’t have different senses in a
strict, dictionary-definition sense, because they still refer to the same general idea. For instance,
"stubborn" and "determined" might both describe someone who doesn’t change their mind, but
"stubborn" has a more negative emotional tone. So, they would likely have the same sense but different
connotations.