Learning

Adaptability: our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing
circumstances

Learning: a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior or knowledge due to

experience. We are born with some behaviors and knowledge, acquire others through
maturation, and learn still others.

We learn by identifying relationships between events and noting regularity of patterns in

the world around you. We can predict that something will occur based on what you know
about the other or what you have learned previously.

We learn by association

Classical Conditioning: type of learning in which an organism comes to associate

stimuli. This is when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that already triggers a
reflexive response until that neutral stimulus alone provokes a similar response.
Conditioning process of learning associations

As a CC and a UCS are repeatedly paired, a CR is gradually learned or acquired.

Pavlov’s Experiment
UCR (unconditioned response): the unlearned, naturally occurring response to UCS
(salivation)
UCS (unconditioned stimulus): stimulus that already elicits a response without learning,
an automatic, unlearned reaction, a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and
automatically triggers a response (food)
CR (conditioned response): learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
(salivation)
CS (conditioned stimulus): an originally irrelevant stimulus that after association with
UCS, comes to trigger CR

Conditioned = learned
Unconditioned = unlearned

Signal Acquisition: time between presentation of the NS and the UCS; optimal tends to
be ½ second

Extinction: diminishing of a conditioned response, occurs when UCS does not follow a
CS eventually CS does not elicit CR

Reconditioning: quick relearning of CR after extinction

Spontaneous Recovery: the temporary appearance, after extinction (without further CS –

UCS pairings)
Generalization: tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to
the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Stimulus discrimination: learned ability to distinguish b/w a CS and other stimulus that
do not signal an UCS

Signaling of Significant Events

Timing: Classical conditioning occurs best when the CS precedes the UCS. The optimal
interval between CS onset and UCS onset is about .5 to 1 second

Predictability: CC occurs faster when CS always signals UCS and only UCS in other
words in order for conditioning to occur the CS abd UCS must be together and be
reliable.

Attention: stimuli that is most closely attended to or perceived is most likely to become a
CS that later triggers CR

Biopreparedness: some stimuli are more easily associated with each other

Watson and Rayner’s experiment: Little Albert’s conditioning

UCS
(loud noise)

UCR
(fear)

CS
(rat) +
UCS
(loud noise)
UCR
(fear)

CS
(rat)
CR
(Fear)

Stimulus similar
To rat (such as rabbit)
Conditioned fear
(generalization)
OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning the consequences of behavior
Associative learning

Subjects associate behaviors w/their consequences, more likely to repeat rewarded

(reinforced) behaviors and less likely to repeat punished behaviors
Thorndike’s Law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur, called this instrumental
conditioning responses are strengthened when they are instrumental in producing
rewards
Law of effect: responses closely followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to
be repeated
Unlike classical conditioning the law of effect allows organisms to learn any behavior as
long as it is followed by good things

B. F. Skinner emphasized that an organism learns a response by trying actions that

operate on the environment, so he called this operant conditioning

Skinner box, also known as operant chamber, similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box

Gradual development of operant often occurs through shaping. This is based upon the
idea of successive approximations – reinforcers given for responses that come closer
and closer to the “desired” response EX. If you want a hyperactive child to sit in his seat
for 10 minutes, you might shape this behavior by rewarding the child first for sitting.
Then, you will gradually set longer and longer times the child must remain sitting before
he gets a reward. Eventually, the child will sit in his seat for 10 minutes. Shaping: process
of reinforcing successive approximation to the target behavior, this allows us to
determine if an animal can differentiate between stimuli
Discriminative stimulus; good for dad but not mom

Operants: behaviors that affects the world

Reinforcer: any consequence that strengthens the behavior it follows

Positive reinforcer: strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a

response (food for animals, money, attention, approval for people)

Negative reinforcer: removal of negative stimuli, negative reinforcer is not

aversive, removes an aversive event. This is escape conditioning

Escape conditioning:
Response ends aversive stimulus, should be strengthened by neg. reinforcement
Avoidance conditioning:
Learn a response to a signal in a way that avoids exposure to impending adverse
stimuli, combination of both classical & operant

Primary reinforcers
Innately reinforcing stimulus such as the one that satisfies a basic, biological need
Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers):
A previously neutral stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its
association w/a primary reinforcer

Delayed gratification:
Consequences of behaviors have more impact when they occur immediately,
immediate reinforcement prevails

Schedules of Reinforcement

a. continuous: reinforce the desired response every time it occurs

b. partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforce a response only part of the time
a. fixed-ratio (FR): schedules five reinforcement only after a fixed # of
responses or behaviors
b. variable ratio (VR): schedule gives reinforcement after an average # of
responses, but varies from one reinforcement to next
c. Fixed-interval (FI): schedule gives reinforcement for the 1st time after a
fixed time has elapsed since the last reinforcer
d. Variable-interval (VI): reinforce the 1st response after varying time
intervals

Ratio-partial reinforcement schedules give the highest response rates, since

reinforcement is still based on the number of responses i.e. paying factory workers on a
piecework basis, tied to the # of items they produce, should yield a high rate of workers
productivity

Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedules, especially interval schedules, responding falls off

just after a reinforcer, followed by ever-increasing responding as the next reinforcer
nears. This gives a scalloped appearance to a graph of responses over time

Extinction weakens the relationship between a behavior and its consequences. Thus,
failure to reinforce a behavior should reduce it frequency i.e. a child throws a temper
tantrum and is rewarded by parental attention. The parent stop paying attention to the
tantrums, the tantrums may first intensify but will eventually stop.

Punishment and Learning

Positive and negative punishment
Reduces frequency of an operant behavior

Positive punishment: add an unpleasant consequence, spanking

Negative punishment: removal of a consequence, loss of something desirable,

Decreases the behavior it follows by presenting an aversive stimulus or removing a

pleasant stimulus. Not the same as negative reinforcement, Chances or a behavior are
raised by negative reinforcement and lowered by punishment.

Drawbacks to punishment
Merely suppresses the unwanted behavior, doesn’t necessarily erase it

Associate punisher with punishment so come to fear the punisher

Needs to be given right after response and must follow every response
(consistency)

May increase aggressiveness by demonstrating that aggressive behavior is way to

cope with problems

Shows inappropriate behavior but not what a better alternative response was

Parents of delinquent youths often lack awareness of how to reinforce desirable behavior
so resort to screaming or hitting

Punishment works best under certain conditions and is more effective when…
Explain why punishment is being given
Punisher emphasizes that it is the behavior, not the person, is being punished
Punishment should be rapid and severe enough to eliminate the response without
being abusive
More appropriate responses are identified and reinforced

Principles of operant conditioning have led to treatment programs for problematic

behavior: mental patients, mentally challenged, autistic, and hard to manage teens

Operant conditioning and Biological Predispositions: works best with build on natural
tendencies, can’t have animal do the impossible, want to pair the behavior with the
reward based on natural tendencies

Can apply operant conditioning to large variety of behaviors and situations, school, work
home, etc, be consistent

Cognitive processes how you represent, store, and use information also affects
learning
Learned helplessness is when an animal learns that its behaviors are unrelated to the
conditions it experiences, after such learning the organism may stop trying to control its
environment, even when it becomes possible to alter the situation, hopeless and passive
resignation an animal learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps

Latent learning is learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to
demonstrate it. Indicates learning can occur without reinforcement

Cognitive maps are mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Cognitive
maps develop as you explore your environment; because this form of learning does not
result from reinforcing overt responses it implies that learning sometimes relies on
cognitive processes like understanding and making inferences

Insight and Learning

Insight learning, animals and people appear to “suddenly” solve a problem. A sudden and
often novel realization of the solution to a problem, this is different from trial and error

Observational learning (social learning): learning by observing others, learning

does not have to occur through direct experience, fads are examples of observational
learning, also Bandura and BOBO doll

Vicarious learning: kind of observational learning, the person is influenced by watching

or hearing about the consequences of other’s behavior, fears can be learned by watching
the fearfulness in others
Violence and observational learning
Imitation and mirror neurons; don’t actually have to engage in behavior for these neurons
to fine, neurons will fire if see another person engaging in behavior

Forms of observational learning:

1, modeling effect
new behavior acquired from modeling, imitating
2. facilitation effect
in unfamiliar situation, look at others to determine what to do
3. inhibitory effect
see model punished for behavior so suppress behavior
4. disinhibitory effect
models influence us to exhibit behavior that previously learned to suppress