Chemistry

Topic – Structure of Atom

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 Earlier efforts to reveal structure of atom:
• CATHODE RAYS - DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON

to maintain lowpressure
inside cathode
ray
tube
Ethrode MB Ma metalelectrode

H2 g 2171g Ht e 10,000W

He191 Het e

Helg Hett de
4
 Discovery of Electron

• The electron is the first fundamental particle which was discovered by J.J.
Thomson in 1897 by utilizing Faraday’s study of electrical discharge in partially
evacuated tubes, known as cathode ray tubes.

• Cathode ray tube : It is a cylindrical glass tube fitted with two metallic
electrodes connected to the oppositely charged poles of a battery.

• Observation : When a gas taken in the tube is subjected to very low pressure
maintained by a vacuum pump and high voltage (10,000 volts), then current
flows in the form of stream of particles moving in the tube from cathode
(negative electrode) to anode (positive electrode). These stream of particles is
known as cathode rays.

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 PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS:
• The cathode rays move from cathode to anode
• These rays are observed with the help of fluorescent or phosphorescent
material.
external
• These rays travel in straight line in the absence of electric and magnetic
field. It is confirmed by the formation of a shadow on the opposite side of
the cathode, when a small object is placed between the cathode and
anode.
• They rotate the little paddle wheel placed in their path. This shows that
cathode rays consists of material particles having both mass and velocity.
• These rays which consists of electrons produced by the ionization of the
gaseous atoms in the discharge tube and they are responsible for the flow
of current. Ht e
H2 g 2171g
He191 Het e Helg Hett de
6
 PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS
external
• When electric and magnetic fields are applied to the cathode rays in the
discharge tube, the rays are deflected thus establishing that they consist of
charged particles. The direction of deflection showed that cathode rays
consist of negatively charged particles called electrons.
• The ratio of charge(e) to mass(m) i.e. charge/mass (Specific Charge) is
same for all cathode rays irrespective of the gas used in the tube. e/m =
1.76 × 1011 Ckg-1
• Charge to mass ratio : J.J. Thomson argued that amount of deviation of the
particles from their path in presence of electrical and magnetic field depends on
1. Magnitude of the negative charge on particle
2. Mass of particle e charge on me

3. Strength of magnetic field electric electron

field 1.6 10 196
7
8
9
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Method
• Millikan in his Oil Drop Experiment observed that the smallest charge
possible was –1.6 × 10–19 coulomb and the magnitude of electrical charge,
q on the oil droplets is always an integral multiple of the electrical charge
‘e’ i.e., q = ne (Quantization of Charge: Charge on any particle is always an
integral multiple of minimum charge possible 1.6 × 10–19) C

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 POSITIVE RAYS DISCOVERY OF PROTON
• When electrons were discovered, then Goldstein brought the idea that
there must be some positively charged particles that neutralise the
negative charge of the electrons to maintain electrical neutrality of an
atom.
• This idea led to the discovery of proton. The discovery of proton by
Goldstein was done on the basis of the cathode ray experiment conducted
by using a perforated cathode.
• Just like cathode rays, some rays were found to originate from the anode
and these were therefore known as anode rays or canal rays.
• Anode rays were found as a stream of positively charged particles in
contrast to cathode rays. When hydrogen gas is taken in a discharge tube,
then these positively charged particles were found to be protons. A proton
is produced when one electron is removed from hydrogen atom (H).
He Hett 2 e
cathode
may Helgi Het É 11
d
anode particle Particle anode
 ay

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PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS
• Anode rays travel in straight lines.
• Anode rays possess positive charge therefore they move towards the
negatively charged electrode.
• The properties of anode rays, unlike cathode rays depend upon the nature
of the gas taken in the discharge tube as the e/m ratio of the positive rays
is different for different gases. 9tercharge
• The mass of the positive particles is same as the atomic mass of the gas
inside the discharge tube.
• The magnitude of positively charged ions which move towards cathode
depends upon the number of electrons lost by the corresponding gaseous
atoms or molecules.

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Nuclear reaction

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Example 1 : Which statement does not describe the properties of
anode rays?
(1) They travel in straight line in absence of electrical or magnetic field
(2) They move towards the positively charged electrode
a
(3)99
e/m ratio of the anode rays is different for different gases
(4) They possess positive charge
α particle Hett
Heliumnuclei
Example 2 : Arrange the following particles in increasing order of
values of e/m ratio: Electron(e), proton (p), neutron (n) and α-
particle
(A) n, p, e, α (B) n, α, p, e (C) n, p, α, e (D) e, p, n, α
e p α

in 1 14
 ATOMIC MODELS
Thomson Atomic Model: Not based on
any exp
• An atom possesses a spherical shape (radius approximately 10–10 m) in
which the positive charge is uniformly distributed
• The electrons are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most
stable electrostatic arrangement
• Many different names are given to this model, for example, plum pudding,
raisin pudding or watermelon
• An important feature of this model is that the mass of the atom is assumed
to be uniformly distributed over the atom
Note: This model could not explain the experimental results of Rutherford’s
α-particle scattering experiment, therefore it was rejected.

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16
 RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL
α – Scattering Experiment:
• In this experiment Rutherford allowed a narrow beam of α-particles
to fall on a very thin gold foil (Thickness ~ 100 nm)
• This gold foil had circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it
• The α-particles emitted by radioactive substances are dipositive
helium ions (He++) having a mass of 4 units and 2 units of positive
charge.

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18
19
 The centripetalforcerequired for the circular
motion comes from electrostatic force of attraction b w electron
nucleus

R closestdistance

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 Electrostatic force b w nucleus α particle
Fe 9 nucleus
charge on
19,1g
92 α particle
K 9 109 Nm C
Electrostatic potential
energy of the system
P.E
19192

dog Fe

Assumption
The line
of approach of an α particle will pass through the
centre of nucleus

Initially the α particle will be projected from a

large distance infinity the P E of
very very
system will be zero
unless mentioned otherwise

By using energy conservation

At point 1 or when the dist b w α particle nucleus is infinity
PE KE
1
0
MVa

At point 2 closest distance

KE 0 as v 0 P.fi ki2e
2
Kqf1
At point 3 at intermediate point
any
KE 0 PE O speed

LK.ES
M PE
KYLE K.EE
conservation
Using energ
T.EC TEL T.E.l
makt
kiZq 2mvt K2f
Example: An α -particle is projected from infinity with the velocity V0 towards
the nucleus of an atom having atomic number equal to Z then find out
(i) Closest distance of approach (R)
(ii) What is the velocity of the α -particle at the distance R1(R1 > R) from the
nucleus? Vi

2 mar 9 2 e 9m ze
199
To 2k
-
4117
I ²
Imav 1 ½malt 2142
2 mar ft
may
2192,1
v2 -
11
Y 4
7
-
21
Example: With what velocity should an α -particle travel towards the nucleus
of a copper atom so as to arrive at a distance 10–13 meter from the nucleus
of the copper atom? 2 291
My 4 1.67 10 27kg
19
e 1.6 10 C

21 4 1047 v2 9 109 2 1 6 151129 1.6 1519

3
10 13

v.in
v

Igof 9 1
1051 1 106
22
6.33 106
Answer: (6.33 × 106 m/s)

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 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
1. Stability of the Atom
2. Electronic Structure of Atoms

Maxwell theory of electromagnetism

A change particle in an
accelerated motion will continuously
loose energy
In
Rutherfordiscoded electrons revolve around the nucleus
in circular paths ie charged particle in accelerated motion24
Hence an e should also loose
energy continuously
as a
result will follow a spiral
into nucleus path ultimately
This will make an atom
falling
unstable
Rutherford was not able to explain the atomic
Hence his model stability
was rejected
Rutherford did not talk about
arrangement of e's outside
the nucleus ie
no of orbits no of e's in a
particular orbit
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 Atomic spectrum as
per Rutherford's model is expected
to
be continuous which in
reality is discontinuous

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Thank You!

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