Unit 2 – DC Motors

Requirements of EV Motor
The EV motors need high power density, high short-time overload
capability, wide constant power speed range (CPSR), high efficiency,
robustness etc. Among the requirements, high power density and high
efficiency are the most important properties that a propulsion device
should have. The overall efficiency needs to be evaluated based on
driving cycles. Thus, an EV motor must be optimized in a most frequently
used area. It is not easy though to increase the efficiency while reducing
material costs and size. Commonly accepted power densities are 5.7
kW/liter and 2 kW/kg. For high power density, most EV motors adopt water
cooling. The motor volume cost is around US$ 500/kW.

Short time high torque capability is required for starting, climbing uphill,
and acceleration. The maximum torque is normally twice as large as the
rated torque and designed to last for 20∼40 seconds. The sustaining time
is limited by the coil temperature. In such a high current period, the rotor
PM can be demagnetized. The PM should not be demagnetized under all
operation conditions.

DC motor
An electric motor operated by DC (direct current) is known as a DC motor (unlike an
induction motor that operates via an alternating current). A DC motor converts DC electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
Principle of DC Motor
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and
has a tendency to move. In other words, when a magnetic field and an electric field interact,
a mechanical force is produced. The DC motor or direct current motor works on that
principle. This is known as motoring action.

The direction of rotation of this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that
if the index finger, middle finger, and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually
perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of the magnetic
field, middle finger indicates the direction of the current, then the thumb represents the
direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the DC motor.
Detailed Description of a DC Motor

The circle in the center represents the direct current motor. On the circle, we draw the
brushes. On the brushes, we connect the external terminals, through which we give the
supply voltage.
On the mechanical terminal, we have a shaft coming out from the center of the armature,
and the shaft couples to the mechanical load. On the supply terminals, we represent the
armature resistance Ra in series.

Now, let the input voltage E, is applied across the brushes. Electric current which flows
through the rotor armature via brushes, in presence of the magnetic field, produces a
torque Tg. Due to this torque Tg the dc motor armature rotates.
As the armature conductors are carrying currents and the armature rotates inside the stator
magnetic field, it also produces an emf Eb in a manner very similar to that of a generator.
The generated Emf Eb is directed opposite to the supplied voltage and is known as the back
Emf, as it counters the forward voltage.
The back emf like in case of a generator is represented by

So, from the above equation, we can see Eb is proportional to speed ‘N.’ That is whenever a
direct current motor rotates; it results in the generation of back Emf. Now let’s represent
the rotor speed by ω in rad/sec. So Eb is proportional to ω. So, when the application of load
reduces the speed of the motor, Eb decreases. Thus, the voltage difference between the
supply voltage and back emf increases that means E − Eb increases.

Due to this increased voltage difference, the armature current will increase and therefore
torque, and hence speed increases. Thus a DC Motor is capable of maintaining the same
speed under variable load.
Now armature current Ia is represented by

Now at starting,speed ω = 0 so at starting Eb = 0.

Now since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is small, this motor has a very high
starting current in the absence of back Emf. As a result, we need to use a starter for starting
a DC Motor. Now as the motor continues to rotate, the back emf starts being generated,
and gradually the current decreases as the motor picks up speed.

DC shunt motor
A DC shunt motor (also known as a shunt wound DC motor) is a type of self-excited DC
motor where the field windings are shunted to or are connected in parallel to the armature
winding of the motor. Since they are connected in parallel, the armature and field windings
are exposed to the same supply voltage. Though there are separate branches for the flow of
armature current and field current – as shown in the figure of below.

DC Shunt Motor Equations

Let us now consider the voltage and current being supplied from the electrical terminal to
the motor be given by E and I total respectively. This supply current in case of the shunt wound
DC motor is split up into 2 parts. Ia, flowing through the armature winding of resistance Ra
and Ish flowing through the field winding of resistance Rsh. The voltage across both
windings remains the same. From there we can write
Thus we put this value of armature current Ia to get general voltage equation of a DC shunt
motor.

Now in general practice, when the motor is in its running condition, and the supply voltage
is constant and the shunt field current given by,

But we know Ish ∝ Φ. i.e. field flux Φ is proportional to filed current Ish. Thus the field flux
remains more or less constant, and for this reason, a shunt wound DC motor is called a
constant flux motor.
Construction of a Shunt Wound DC Motor
The construction of a dc shunt motor is pretty similar to other types of DC motor, as shown
in the figure below. Just that there is one distinguishable feature in its designing which can
be explained by taking into consideration, the torque generated by the motor. To produce
high torque,

The armature winding must be exposed to an amount of current that’s much higher than
the field windings current, as the torque is proportional to the armature current.
The field winding must be wound with many turns to increase the flux linkage, as flux
linkage between the field and armature winding is also proportional to the torque.
Keeping these two above mentioned criterion in mind a DC shunt motor has been designed
in a way, that the field winding possess much higher number of turns to increase net flux
linkage and are lesser in diameter of conductor to increase resistance (reduce current flow)
compared to the armature winding of the DC motor. And this is how a shunt wound DC
motor is visibly distinguishable in static condition from the DC series motor (having thicker
field coils) of the self excited type motor’s category.
Self-Speed Regulation of a Shunt Wound DC Motor
A very important and interesting fact about the DC shunt motor, is in its ability to self-
regulate its speed on the application of the load to the shaft of the rotor terminals. This
essentially means that on switching the motor running condition from no load to loaded,
surprisingly there is no considerable change in speed of running, as would be expected in
the absence of any speed regulating modifications from outside.
Initially considering the motor to be running under no load or lightly loaded condition at a
speed of N rpm. On adding a load to the shaft, the motor does slow down initially, but this is
where the concept of self regulation comes into the picture. At the very onset of load

speed also reduces the back emf, Eb. Since Eb ∝ N, given by,
introduction to a shunt wound DC motor, the speed definitely reduces, and along with

This can be graphically explained below.

This reduction in the counter emf or the back emf Eb results in the increase of the net
voltage. As net voltage Enet = E − Eb. Since supply voltage E remains constant. As a result of

torque increases. Since, Ia ∝ Τ given by

this increased amount of net voltage, the armature current increases and consequently the

The change in armature current and torque on supplying load is graphically shown below.
This increase in the amount of torque increases the speed and thus compensating for the
speed loss on loading. Thus the final speed characteristic of a DC shunt motor, looks like.

From there we can well understand this special ability of the shunt wound DC motor to
regulate its speed by itself on loading and thus its rightly called the constant flux or constant
speed motor. Because of which it finds wide spread industrial application where ever
constant speed operation is required.
Series Wound DC Motor or DC Series Motor

A series wound DC motor like in the case of shunt wound DC motor or compound wound DC
motor falls under the category of self-excited DC motors, and it gets its name from the fact
that the field winding in this case is connected internally in series to the armature winding.
Thus the field winding are exposed to the entire armature current unlike in the case of a
shunt motor.
Construction of Series DC Motor
Construction wise this motor is similar to any other types of DC motors in almost all aspects.
It consists of all the fundamental components like the stator housing the field winding or the
rotor carrying the armature conductors, and the other vital parts like the commutator or the
brush segments all attached in the proper sequence as in the case of a generic DC motor.
Yet if we are to take a close look into the wiring of the field and armature coils of this DC
motor, its clearly distinguishable from the other members of this type.
To understand that let us revert back into the above-mentioned basic fact, that this motor
has field coil connected in series to the armature winding. For this reason, relatively higher
current flows through the field coils, and its designed accordingly as mentioned below.
The field coils of DC series motor are wound with relatively fewer turns as the current
through the field is its armature current and hence for required mmf less numbers of turns
are required.

The wire is heavier, as the diameter is considerable increased to provide minimum electrical
resistance to the flow of full armature current. In spite of the above mentioned differences,
about having fewer coil turns the running of this DC motor remains unaffected, as the
current through the field is reasonably high to produce a field strong enough for generating
the required amount of torque. To understand that better lets look into the voltage and
current equation of DC series motor.
Voltage and Current Equation of Series DC Motor
The electrical layout of a typical series wound DC motor is shown in the diagram below.

Let the supply voltage and current given to the electrical port of the motor be given by E and
Itotal respectively. Since the entire supply current flows through both the armature and
field conductor.
Where, Ise is the series current in the field coil and Ia is the armature current. Now form the
basic voltage equation of the DC motor.

Where, Eb is the back emf. Rse is the series coil resistance and Ra is the armature resistance.
Since Ise = Ia, we can write,

This is the basic voltage equation of a series wound DC motor. Another interesting fact
about the DC series motor worth noting is that, the field flux like in the case of any other DC
motor is proportional to field current.

But since here

i.e. the field flux is proportional to the entire armature current or the total supply current.
And for this reason, the flux produced in this motor is strong enough to produce sufficient
torque, even with the bare minimum number of turns it has in the field coil.
Speed and Torque of Series DC Motor
A series wound motors has linear relationship existing between the field current and the
amount of torque produced. i.e. torque is directly proportional to current over the entire
range of the graph. As in this case relatively higher current flows through the heavy series
field winding with thicker diameter, the electromagnetic torque produced here is much
higher than normal. This high electromagnetic torque produces motor speed, strong enough
to lift heavy load overcoming its initial inertial of rest. And for this particular reason the
motor becomes extremely essential as starter motors for most industrial applications
dealing in heavy mechanical load like huge cranes or large metal chunks etc. Series motors
are generally operated for a very small duration, about only a few seconds, just for the
purpose of starting. Because if its run for too long, the high series current might burn out
the series field coils thus leaving the motor useless.

Speed Regulation of Series Wound DC Motor

Unlike in the case of a DC shunt motor, the DC series motor has very poor speed regulation.
i.e. the series motor is unable to maintain its speed on addition of external load to the shaft.
Let us see why?
When mechanical load is added to the shaft at any instance, the speed automatically
reduces whatever be the type of motor. But the term speed regulation refers to the ability
of the motor to bring back the reduced speed to its original previous value within
reasonable amount of time. But this motor is highly incapable of doing that as with
reduction in speed N on addition of load, the back emf given by,

This decrease in back Emf Eb, increases the net voltage E – Eb, and consequently the series
field current increases,

The value of series current through the field coil becomes so high that it tends to saturate of
the magnetic core of the field. As a result the magnetic flux linking the coils increases at a
much slower rate compared to the increase in current beyond the saturation region as
shown in the figure below.
The weak magnetic field produced as a consequence is unable to provide for the necessary
amount of force to bring back the speed at its previous value before application of load.
So keeping all the above mentioned facts in mind, a series wound DC motor is most
applicable as a starting motor for industrial applications.

Speed control of DC shunt motor

The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to
N = K (V – IaRa)/ ø Where, K is a constant.
This implies three things:
1. Speed of the motor is directly proportional to supply voltage.
2. The Speed of the motor is inversely proportional to armature voltage drop.
3. The motor speed is inversely proportional to the flux due to the field findings
Thus, the speed of a DC motor can control in three ways:
 By varying the flux, and by varying the current through field winding
 By varying the armature voltage, and the armature resistance
 Through the supply voltage
1. Flux Control Method
Due to the field winding, the magnetic flux varies in order to vary the speed of the motor. As
the magnetic flux depends on the current flowing through the field winding, it changes by
varying the current through the field winding. This can achieve using a variable resistor in a
series with the field winding resistor.

Initially, when the variable resistor keeps at its minimum position, the rated current flows
through the field winding due to a rated supply voltage, and as a result, the speed is kept
normal. When the resistance increases gradually, the current through the field winding
decreases. This in turn decreases the flux produced. Thus, the speed of the motor increases
beyond its normal value.
2. Armature Control Method
The controlling of armature resistance controls the voltage drop across the armature. With
this method, the speed of the DC motor can control. This method also uses a variable
resistor in series with the armature.
When the variable resistor reaches its minimum value, the armature resistance is at normal
one. Therefore, the armature voltage drops. When the resistance value gradually increases,
the voltage across the armature decreases. This in turn leads to decrease in the speed of the
motor. In this way, this method achieves the speed of the motor below its normal range.
Advantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
 Very fine speed control over whole range in both directions
 Uniform acceleration is obtained
 Good speed regulation
 It has regenerative braking capacity
Disadvantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
 Costly arrangement is needed, floor space required is more
 Low efficiency at light loads
 Drive produced more noise.
3. Voltage Control Method
Both the above mentioned methods cannot provide speed control in the desirable range.
Moreover, the flux control method can affect commutation. Whereas the armature control
method involves huge power loss due to its usage of resistor in series with the armature.
Therefore, a different method is often desirable – the one that controls the supply voltage
to control the motor speed.
In such a method, the field winding receives a fixed voltage, and the armature gets a
variable voltage. One such technique of voltage control method involves the use of a switch
gear mechanism to provide a variable voltage to the armature. Another one uses an AC
motor driven Generator to provide variable voltage to the armature (named as Ward-
Leonard System).
Disadvantages of Field Rheostat Controlled DC Shunt Motor
 Creeping speeds cannot be obtained.
 Top speeds only obtained at reduced torque.
 The speed is maximum at minimum value of flux, which is governed by the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction on the field.
Speed Control of Series Motor
1. Flux Control Method
Field diverter: A variable resistance is connected parallel to the series field as shown in fig
(a). This variable resistor is called as a diverter, as the desired amount of current can be
diverted through this resistor and, hence, current through field coil can be decreased. Thus,
flux can be decreased to the desired amount and speed can be increased.
Armature diverter: Diverter is connected across the armature as shown in fig (b). For a
given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then the flux must increase, as Ta
∝ ØIa This will result in an increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux Ø will
increase and subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.
Tapped field control: As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus
we can select different value of Ø by selecting different number of turns.
Paralleling field coils: In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils as
shown in fig (d).

2. Variable Resistance in Series with Armature

By introducing resistance in series with the armature, voltage across the armature can be
reduced. And, hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.
3. Series-Parallel Control
This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled
series motors are employed. For low speeds, the motors are connected in series, and for
higher speeds, the motors are connected in parallel.
When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage
across each motor is divided. When in parallel, the voltage across each motor is same
although the current gets divided.
Regenerative Braking
In Regenerative Braking, the power or energy of the driven machinery which is in kinetic
form is returned back to the power supply mains. This type of braking is possible when the
driven load or machinery forces the motor to run at a speed higher than the no-load speed
with a constant excitation.
Under this condition, the back emf Eb of the motor is greater than the supply voltage V,
which reverses the direction of motor armature current. The machine now begins to
operate as a generator and the energy generated is supplied to the source.
Regenerative braking can also be performed at very low speeds if the motor is connected as
a separately excited generator. The excitation of the motor is increased as the speed is
reduced so that the two equations shown below are satisfied.

The motor does not enter into saturation on increasing excitation. Regenerative braking is
possible with the shunt and separately excited motors. In compound motors, braking is
possible only with weak series compounding.

Applications of Regenerative Braking

 Regenerative braking is used especially where frequent braking and slowing of drives
is required.

 It is most useful in holding a descending load of high potential energy at a constant

speed.

 Regenerative braking is used to control the speed of motors driving loads such as in
electric locomotives, elevators, cranes and hoists.

 Regenerative braking cannot be used for stopping the motor. It is used for
controlling the speed above the no-load speed of the motor driving.

The necessary condition for regeneration is that the back EMF Eb should be greater than the
supply voltage so that the armature current is reversed and the mode of operation changes
from motoring to generating.
Regenerative braking occurs when the motor speed exceeds the no-load speed (at zero
torque). For a series motor, at zero torque, the no-load speed is theoretically infinity. Hence,
one might conclude that the series motor could not operate under regenerative braking.
Actually, the circuit of the series motor can be altered during regenerative braking to allow
the machine to generate electric power that can be returned to the source.

Consider the circuits in Figure 1. The circuit on the right side of the figure shows the normal
motor operation of the series machine. The circuit on the left shows a configuration for
regenerative braking. In this case, the field circuit is excited by a separate source. The
voltage of the separate source must be low enough to prevent the field current from
becoming excessive. This is because the field resistance of the series motor is small: The
field coil is composed of a small number of turns with a large cross section.

Switching from the circuit on the right side to that on the left side is best done using solid-
state switches. The switching should not allow the current in the field circuit to be
interrupted. Uninterruptible field current reduces current transients and prevents the
machine from over speeding.

A simple circuit for this operation is shown in Figure 2. In the figure, S1 to S3 are solid-state
switches. During motor operation, S1 is closed, and S2 and S3 are open as shown in Figure
2(a). When the machine operates under regenerative braking, S1 is opened, and S2 and S3
are closed. This occurs in steps. In the first step, S1 is opened and S3 is closed as shown in
Figure 2(b).

In this case, the armature circuit is separated from the field winding. To prevent the collapse
of the field current during the interval between opening S1 and closing S2, the freewheeling
diode is used. The freewheeling current lfw keeps the field current continuous. In the
second step, S2 is closed and the field current is provided by the separate source Vf as
shown in Figure 2(c), The machine now operates under regenerative braking similar to that
of the shunt machine.

Thermal management for electric motors

Thermal management for electric motors is important as the automotive industry continues
to transition to more electrically dominant vehicle propulsion systems. With the push to
reduce component size, lower costs, and reduce weight without sacrificing performance or
reliability, the challenges associated with thermal management for power electronics and
electric motors increase. The transition to more electrically dominant propulsion systems
leads to higher-power duty cycles for electric drive systems. Thermal constraints place
significant limitations on how electric motors ultimately perform. As summarized by Thomas
Lipo, “[a]n optimized thermal design can help increase machine rated power substantially,
almost without any increase of its manufacturing costs.”. The performance limitations
caused by motor heating are highlighted in Figure I-1. The motor's ability to increase
running time at higher power levels within electrical operating limits is directly related to
the ability to remove heat from critical components. As thermal management improves,
there will be a direct trade-off among motor performance, efficiency, cost, and the sizing of
electric motors to operate within the thermal constraint

Thermal management of electric motors is a complex challenge because of the multiple heat
transfer paths within the motor and the multiple materials and thermal interfaces through
which the heat must pass to be removed. The technical challenges to motor thermal
management are summarized by Hendershot and Miller as follows: “Heat transfer is as
important as electromagnetic and mechanical design. The analysis of heat transfer and fluid
flow in motors is actually more complex, more nonlinear, and more difficult than the
electromagnetic behavior”. Figure I-2 provides a cut cross-section view illustrating heat
transfer and cooling paths for automotive traction drive applications. The heat generated by
the electric motor is distributed throughout multiple components within the electric motor.
For example, heat is generated due to losses within the stator slot-windings, stator end-
windings, stator laminations, rotor laminations, and rotor magnets or conductors. The
distribution of the generated heat within the components is dependent on the motor type
and the operating condition (torque/speed) of the motor. The selected cooling approach for
the motor impacts the path of heat flow through the motor and the temperature
distribution of components. For example, as shown in Figure I-2, a motor cooled with a
stator cooling jacket will require heat generated within the slot windings to pass through
multiple material layers and material interfaces before the heat is extracted through the
cooling jacket. The thermal properties of the materials and the thermal contact resistances
due to the material interfaces impact the temperature distribution inside the motor as heat
flows into the cooling jacket. Alternatively, direct cooling of the windings with oil or ATF
reduces the heat transfer path from the motor windings to the coolant. However, heat from
the stator must pass through several interfaces. The resulting changes in the temperature
distribution within the motor lead to hot spots within the motor that could be difficult to
measure.

Thermal management of the motor is not only important for the reliability of the motor, but
the temperatures of the components within the motor affect material properties that
directly relate to the torque production, control, and efficiency of the motor. For this
reason, motor designers need accurate thermal models of the electric motor during the
design and control development of the motor. Critical to the ability to accurately model the
thermal behavior of the motor is access to data describing critical thermal characteristics of
the motor. Such data include direction-dependent thermal conductivity measurements of
nonuniform motor components such as lamination stacks and windings. It also includes data
to quantify thermal contact resistances between components in the motor. Finally, it also
includes data to support the modeling and design of active cooling of the motor and the
convective heat transfer coefficients possible from alternative cooling approaches.

Approach

The ability to remove heat from an electric motor depends on the passive stack thermal
resistance within the motor and the convective cooling performance of the selected cooling
technology. For this reason, the approach for the research project splits the efforts for
motor thermal management within these two categories as illustrated by Figure I-3.
The passive thermal design refers to the geometrical layout, material selection, and thermal
interfaces that affect the heat-spreading capabilities within the motor. The ability for heat to
spread through the motor affects the thermal temperature gradients within the motor. The
active convective cooling technology is the cooling mechanism that ultimately removes the
heat from the motor and transfers the heat to another location to reject the heat to the
ambient environment.

Active cooling

The two common approaches highlighted in Figure I-3 for active cooling include: 1) directly
cooling the motor with ATF, and 2) cooling the motor with a cooling jacket surrounding the
stator. The advantages of either cooling approach depend on the application's coolant
availability, the motor geometry, and the motor loss distribution. The advantage of cooling
using ATF is it is possible to directly cool the motor windings or rotor.

Past work focused on measurement of average convection coefficients of ATF jets directly
impinging on target surfaces representative of motor end windings. In the area of active
cooling, the focus during FY15 emphasized spatial mapping of the heat transfer coefficients
at the local scale and stator scale. The heat transfer coefficients of jet impingement at the
local scale (around the jet impingement zone) are not uniform, and the magnitude of the
variation is unknown for ATF jets applied to motor cooling. Figure I-4 shows the fluid
velocity profile of a fluid jet impinging on a flat target surface. The velocity profile was
experimentally obtained at NREL using equipment for particle image velocimetry. The fluid
velocity variation from the centerline stagnation point along the wall through the
turbulence transition point impacts the local convective heat transfer along the wall or
target boundary. During FY15, experimental hardware was redesigned and built to begin
efforts to experimentally measure the local variation in the convective heat transfer
coefficient around the jet impingement region. The experimental equipment that was
designed and built for the measurements is briefly described below. The measurements are
part of ongoing work.
In addition to the variation in the local-scale heat transfer coefficient, the heat transfer
coefficient will also vary along the larger-scale stator end-winding illustrated in Figure I-5. As
seen in Figure I-5, the discrete placement of a limited number of ATF jets produces
nonuniform cooling of the end-winding. Also, as the ATF flows over the end-winding, the
heat transfer will be different than around the impingement zone of the jet.

The irregular surface caused by the wire bundles also complicates the fluid flow paths and
the heat transfer. During FY15, NREL built an experimental setup with customized heat
transfer sensors to measure the heat transfer variation on the motor end-winding. The
initial experiments exclude the irregular surfaces caused by the wire bundles seen in Figure
I-5, but additional end-winding geometry complexity can be incorporated in future
experiments using the same experimental setup. The following sections summarize the
design and construction of the experimental equipment, and the experiments are part of
ongoing work.

Passive Thermal Design

The passive thermal stack elements illustrated in Figure I-2 and Figure I-6 are critical to
designing effective thermal management systems for electric motors. The work supports
improved thermal models for motor design, but it also enables analysis to compare the
potential impacts of new materials, fabrication methods, or material processing on motor
heat transfer. Figure I-6 illustrates a few of the critical elements that influence the passive
cooling of the motor or the ability of heat to flow through the motor. A few of the items
highlighted in Figure I-6 include the stator-to-case thermal contact resistance, lamination
through-stack and in-plane thermal conductivity, winding cross-slot thermal properties and
thermal interface resistance between ground insulation materials and the respective motor
elements in contact with the slot liner or ground insulation.