MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING 11.

The planning, measurement and

management of construction works,
Surveying – beginning of civilization. The earliest
including the estimation of costs.
applications were in measuring and marking
boundaries of property ownership. Its importance MODULE 2 – MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL
has steadily increased with the growing demand for a DISTANCE
variety of maps and other spatially related types of
Distance Measurement – most fundamental of all
information and the expanding need for establishing
surveying.
accurate line and grade to guide construction
operations. Traditional ground surveys – even though many
angles may be read, the length of at least one line
Today’s importance, measuring and monitoring our
must be measured to supplement the angles in
environment is becoming increasingly critical as our
locating points.
population expands, land values appreciate, our
natural resources dwindle, and human activities Plane surveying – the distance between two points
continue to stress the quality of our land, water, and means the horizontal distance.
air.
If the points are at different elevations, the distance
Surveyor’s Detailed Task is the horizontal length between vertical lines at the
points.
1. Determination of the size and shape of the
earth and measurements of all data needed Distance by Tachymetry
to define the size, portion, shape and
contour of any part of the earth and • Indirect method measurement – based on
monitoring any change therein. the optical geometry of the instruments
2. The positioning of objects in space and employed.
time as well as the positioning and • Transit or Theodolite – used to determine
monitoring of physical features, structures subtended intervals and angles on a
and engineering works on, above or below graduated rod or scale from which distances
the surface of the earth. are computed by trigonometry.
3. The development, testing, and calibration • Subtense bar method – convenient and
of sensors, instruments and systems for the practical device used for quick and accurate
above-mentioned purposes and for other measurement of horizontal distances.
surveying. • Stadia Method - provides a rapid means of
4. The acquisition and use of spatial determining horizontal distances. It was
information from close range, aerial and introduced in 1771 by James Watt of
satellite imagery and the automation of Scotland and was at that time referred to as a
these processes. micrometer for measuring distances.
5. The determination of the position of the
Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Method
boundaries of public or private land,
including national and international • Unknown distances – may be determined
boundaries, and the registration of those through their relationship with known
lands with the appropriate authorities. distances geometrically.
6. The design, establishment and
administration of geographic information These methods are widely employed in
systems (GIS) and the collection, storage, plane table surveys, and in
analysis, management, display and triangulation work.
dissemination of data. Distance by Mechanical Devices
7. The analysis, interpretation and integration
of spatial objects and phenomena in GIS, • Odometer – simple device that can be
including the visualization and communication attached to a wheel for purposes of roughly
of such data in maps, models and mobile measuring surface distances.
digital devices.
8. The study of the natural and social The wheel is rolled over the
environment, the measurement of land and distance to be measured and
marine resources and the use of such data in the number of revolutions of the
the planning of development in urban, rural wheel is directly registered by
and regional areas. the device.
9. The planning, development and • Measuring Wheel – very similar in operation
redevelopment of property, whether urban to an odometer except that it is a more portable
or rural and whether land or buildings. and self-contained measuring device.
10. The assessment of value and the
management of property, whether urban or
rural and whether land or buildings
 • Optical Range Finder – operates on the
same principle as a rangefinder on a single-
lens reflex camera. This device, which is
usually hand-held or mounted on a small
tripod, can be used to determine distances
approximately simply by focusing.

The accepted precision for measuring distance by

pacing usually varies from 1/200 or better.
Distance by Taping
Distance by Photogrammetry
• Graduated tape – the most common method
• The types of photographs used are those
of measuring or laying out horizontal
taken from aircraft with the axis of camera
distances.
pointed vertically towards the terrain
• Taping – consists of stretching a calibrated
photographed.
tape between two points and reading the
• Google Earth can also be applied in
distance indicated in the tape.
measuring horizontal distance.
• Direct measurement –widely used in the
Distance by Pacing construction of buildings, dams, bridges,
canals and many other, engineering as well
• Pacing consists of counting the number of non engineering activities.
steps or paces in a required distance.
• Pace - defined as the length of a step-in Types of Measuring Tapes
walking. It may be measured from heel to heel
• Steel Tape / Surveyor’s Tape – made of
or from toe to toe.
a ribbon of steel 0.5 to 1.0 cm in width, and
Sample Calculation: Determination of Pace Factor weighs 0.8 to 1.5 kg per 30 meters.
and Relative Precision • Fiberglass Tape – made by weaving fiber
glass in a longitudinal and transverse
A 45 - m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a pattern. They are strong and flexible and
surveyor for the purpose of determining his pace will not shrink or stretch.
factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are
• Other Types of Tapes – Metallic Tape,
shown in the accompanying tabulation.
Non- Metallic Tape, Invar Tape, Lovar
Tape, Wires, Builders Tape, Phosphor-
Bronze Tape, Nylon Coated Steel Tape.
Basic Steps in Taping
Observation of horizontal distances by
taping consists of applying the known
length of a graduated tape directly to a
line a number of times.
Two types of taping procedure:
1. Measuring - an unknown distance
between fixed points, such as
between two stakes in the ground.
2. Laying out - a known or required
or specified distance given the
starting point marking.
Taping is performed in six steps:
1. Lining in,
2. Applying tension,
 3. Plumbing, • The absolute value for the
4. Marking tape lengths, correction per tape length (Corr)
5. Reading the tape, and is determined from the difference
6. Recording the distance between the true actual length of
LAPMRtRd tape or actual length of tape (TL)
and the nominal length of tape (NL)
Errors in Taping
or:
There are three fundamental sources Corr = TL – NL
of error in taping. • Correspondingly, corrected
distances which are measured of
• Instrumental errors – A tape may differ in laid out with a tape that is too long
actual length from its nominal graduated or too short can be determined
length because of a defect in manufacture from the following equations:
or repair, or as a result of kinks.
• Natural errors – The horizontal distance
between end graduations of a tape varies
because of the effects of temperature,
wind, and weight of the tape itself.
• Personal errors – Tape persons setting
pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the MODULE 3 – MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL
equipment. DISTANCES

The most common types of taping errors are Leveling – applied to any of the various processes by
discussed in the subsections that follow. They which elevations of points or differences in elevation
stem from instrumental, natural, and are determined. It is a vital operation in producing
personal sources. Some types produce necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and
systematic errors, others produce random construction.
errors. Leveling results are used to
Corrections in Taping (1) design highways, railroads, canals,
Basic Rule in Application of sewers, water supply systems, and other
Corrections in Taping. facilities having grade lines that best conform
to existing topography;
“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short,
subtract. Do the reverse when laying out.” (2) lay out construction projects according to
planned elevations;
too long – when the tape length is
greater than the standardized length (3) calculate volumes of earthwork and other
too short – when the tape length is materials;
lesser than the standardized length (4) investigate drainage characteristics of an
Correction due to Incorrect Tape Length area;

• Incorrect length of a tape can be (5) develop maps showing general ground
one of the most important errors. It configurations; and
is systematic. (6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

Tape manufacturers do not "Highway Plans Help Drain General Studies"

guarantee steel tapes to be exactly
their graduated nominal length—
for example, 100.00m.

Also, imperfections may be due to

wear, worn, kinked or may be
improperly repaired.

Standardization procedure can be

performed on various types of
tapes with additional cost to the
end user. The true length is
obtained by comparing it with a Level Surface - It is a curved surface which is at any
standard tape or distance, in a point perpendicular to the direction of gravity or the
specific temperature, pull (tension) plumb line. It is best represented by the surface of a
and support. large body of still water.
Level Line - a curved line in a level surface all points taken after the instrument has been set up and
of which are normal to the direction of gravity and levelled.
equidistant from the center of the earth.
- are frequently referred to as plus sights (+S)
Horizontal Surface - It is a plane that is tangent a
since they are added to the elevation of points
level surface at a particular point. Also, perpendicular
being sighted to determine the height of
to the plumb line at the same point.
instrument.
Horizontal Line - A straight line in a horizontal plane - does not necessary mean that it is always a
which is tangent to a level line at one point. sight taken backward.

Vertical Line - at any point sine parallel to the • Foresights (FS) - a reading taken on a rod
direction of gravity. held on a point whose elevation is to be
Mean Sea Level - is an imaginary surface of the sea determined.
which is midway between high and low tides. This
surface, which considered to be at zero elevation, - It is represented as a vertical distance from the
conforms to the spheroidal shape of the earth and is line of sight of the instrument to the point
perpendicular to direction of gravity at every point. observed. Also referred as minus sight (-S)
since the reading for a foresight is subtracted
Datum - is any convenient level surface coincident or from the height of instrument to determine the
Parallel with mean sea level to which elevations of a elevation of the point on which the rod is held.
particular area are referred.
• Turning Points (TP) - an intervening point
Elevation - For a particular point, its elevation is the
between two bench marks upon which point
vertical distance above or below mean se level or any
other selected datum. foresight and backsight rod readings are taken
to enable a levelling operation to continue from
Difference in Elevation - between two points is the a new instrument position. It is also sometimes
vertical distance between the two-level surfaces in referred to as a change point (CP).
which the points lie. Elev. Of TP1 = HI – FS
Differential levelling - the process of determining the
• Height of Instruments (HI) - (or height of
difference in elevation between two or more points
collimation) is the elevation of the line of sight
some distance apart. It requires a series of set ups of
of an instrument above or below a selected
the instrument along a general route and, for each set
reference datum. It is determined by adding
up, a rod reading back to the point of known elevation
the rod reading on the backsight to the
are taken. The basic equipment used in differential
elevation of the point on which the sight is
levelling include a graduated levelling rod and a
taken.
levelling instrument such as a dumpy level, automatic
level, or an engineer’s transit. These levelling
instruments are used to establish a horizontal line of • Backsight and Foresight Distance (BSD
sight and to measure the vertical distance between and FSD) - The backsight distance is
the line of sight and the point on which the rod is held. measured from the center of the instrument to
the rod on which a backsight is taken.

- The horizontal distance from the center of

the instrument to the rod on which a fore
sight is taken is referred to as the
foresight distance.

- Its length is usually made nearly equal to

its corresponding backsight distance.
• Bench Mark (BM) - a fixed point of reference
whose elevation is either known or assumed. • Difference in Elevation (DE) - The difference
They may be per manent or temporary. in elevation between two points is the vertical
• Permanent bench marks (PBM) are distance between the two-level surfaces in
those which are established at intervals which the points lie.
throughout the country by the Philippine
Coast and Geodetic Surveys (PCGS) or • Arithmetic Check - should be done before the
the Bureau of Lands. survey team leaves the site.
• Backsights (BS) - a reading taken on a rod
held on a point of known or assumed elevation. The difference between the sum of foresights
(FS) and sum of backsights (BS) is equal to
It is measure of the vertical distance from the the difference in elevation between the first
established line measure of sight to the point station (BMa) and last station (BMb).
sighted, and is always the first rod reading
Leveling Rods and Taking Rod Readings
- Two "E" pattern staffs are shown on the right,
note slight differences in the marking and
numbers. The "E" pattern is designed to make it
easy to read a small section of the scale when
seen through a telescope.
- The staff is simply a large ruler, available in
lengths of 3, 4 or 5 meter and usually made of
aluminum with telescopic sections.
- The sections have locking buttons to ensure
accurate length is maintained.
- Some staffs also have an extended length scale
in mm on the back.
- Measurements are in meters and cm (10mm
blocks) which enable heights to be estimated to
1 mm. Alternating colors are used to differentiate
each meter length, the most common being
black and red on a white background.
- Major graduations occur at 100 mm intervals
and are denoted by figures. Minor graduations
are at 10 mm intervals and form colored squares
or intervening spaces. The lower 50 mm of any
100 mm block are joined by a band to form the
distinctive E pattern which is designed to make
reading a small section of the staff in the
telescope easier.
- The readings shown in figure can be read from
upper or lower stadia hairs and horizontal cross
hairs.

Upper Stadia Hair: 0.645m

Horizontal Cross Hair: 0.620m
Lower Stadia Hair: 0.595m
MODULE 4 – MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND Azimuths - Another common method used in
DIRECTIONS designating the direction of a line is by the use of
azimuths. The azimuth of a line is its direction as given
Determining the locations of points and orientations of
by the angle between the meridian and the line
lines frequently depends on the observation of angles
measured in a clockwise direction from either the
and directions. In surveying, directions are given by
north or south branch of the meridian.
azimuths and bearings.
Azimuths are usually preferred over bearings by
Angles measured in surveying are classified as either
most surveyors because they are more convenient
horizontal or vertical, depending on the plane in which
to work with such as in computing traverse data by
they are observed.
electronic digital computers.
Horizontal angles are the basic observations needed
The azimuth of a line may range from 0 to 360 degrees
for determining bearings and azimuths.
and letters are not required to identify quadrants. For
Vertical angles are used in trigonometric leveling, any particular survey the direction of zero azimuth is
stadia and for reducing slope distances to horizontal. either always north or always south.

Angles are most often directly observed in the field Some surveyors reckon azimuths from the south and
with total station instruments, although in the past some from the north branch of whatever meridian is
transits, theodolites, and compasses have been used. selected as a reference. Usually, a particular agency
or organization will consistently use one or the other.
Three basic requirements determine an angle:
(1) reference or starting line,
(2) direction of turning, and
(3) angular distance (value of the angle).
Methods of computing bearings and azimuths
described in this module are based on these three
elements.

Bearings - The direction of a line may be described

by giving the bearing. The bearing of a line is the acute
horizontal angle between the reference meridian and
the line.
A quadrantal system is used to specify bearings such
that a line may fall under one of the following
quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and SW.
Each quadrant is numbered from 0 to 90 degrees from
either the north or south end of the meridian to the
east or west end of the reference parallel (or the E-W
Line). The fact that bearing angles never exceed 90
degrees is an advantage when extracting values of
their trigonometric functions for use in computations.
MODULE 5 - TRAVERSE AND AREA
COMPUTATION
TRAVERSE COMPUTATION
Measured angles or directions of closed traverses are
readily investigated before leaving the field. Linear
measurements, even though repeated, are more
likely a source of error, and must also be checked.
Although the calculations are lengthier than angle
checks, with today’s programmable calculators and
portable computers they can also be done in the field
to determine, before leaving, whether a traverse
meets the required precision.
LATITUDE AND DEPARTURES
Departure - its orthographic projection on the
east-west axis of the survey and is equal to the
length of the course multiplied by the sine of its
azimuth (or bearing) angle. Departures are
sometimes called eastings or westings.
Latitude – its orthographic projection on the
north-south axis of the survey, and is equal to the
course length multiplied by the cosine of its
azimuth (or bearing) angle. Latitude is also called
northing or southing.
In traverse calculations, east departures and
north latitudes are considered plus (positive);
west departures and south latitudes, minus
(negative).

Azimuths (from north) used in computing

departures and latitudes range from 0 to 360°,
and the algebraic signs of sine and cosine
functions automatically produce the proper
algebraic signs of the departures and latitudes.
 Note: since angles (bearing or azimuth)
referred from North or South, the values X is
the latitude (north-south line) and Y is the
departure (east-west line).
INVERSING
If the departure and latitude of a line are known, its
length and azimuth or bearing are readily obtained
from the following relationships:

Calculating the Latitudes and Departures using

the Rectangular Functions of Calculators
Calculating the Lengths and Bearings using the Rule 2: The DMD of any other course is equal to the
Polar Functions of Calculators DMD of the preceding course plus the departure of the
preceding course plus the departure of the course
itself.
Rule 3: The DMD of the last course is numerically
equal to the departure of that course but with opposite
sign. After determining the DMD’s of the courses,
compute for the double areas by multiplying the DMD
of the course by the adjusted latitude.
Double Area (DA) = DMD (Adjusted Latitude)
Traverse area is the equal to the algebraic sum of the
double areas divided by 2.
Since the sign of the latitude must be used double
areas will yield positive and negative values thus strict
attention to signs is absolute requirements in the
computations of areas by this method.
In summing up the double areas negative results
when negative double areas are larger than the
positive double areas. However, if negative sign is
encountered, it is simply ignored and area of the
traverse is the numerical value.

Area by Double Parallel Distance (DPD)

Parallel distance of a line is defined as the distance
from the midpoint of the line to the reference parallel
or the east west line.
Double parallel distance of a line is equal to twice
its parallel distance. The double parallel distance
(DPD) method of area computation is similar to the
double meridian distance (DMD) with following
differences
The three rules in computing the DMD for each course
of traverse:
AREA COMPUTATION
Rule 1: The DPD of the first line/course is equal to
There are a number of important reasons for latitude of the course
determining areas. One is to include the hectares or
Rule 2: The DPD of any other course is equal to the
square meters of a parcel of land in the deed
DPD of the preceding course plus the latitude of the
describing the property. Other purposes are to
preceding course plus the latitude of the course itself.
determine the area of fields, lakes, etc., or the number
of square meters to be surfaced, paved, seeded, or Rule 3: The DPD of the last course is numerically
sodded. equal to the latitude of that course but with opposite
sign
Area by Double Meridian Distance (DMD)
Double Area (DA) = DPD (Adjusted Departure)
Meridian distance of a line is defined as the shortest
distance from the midpoint of the line to reference
meridian.
Note: The traverse must be closed, meaning the
Double meridian of a line is the meridian distance of
summation of departure and latitudes must be zero
the line multiplied by two. Double meridian distances
otherwise traverse adjustments is necessary.
are used in computing the area of a field enclosed by
traverse.
The three rules in computing the DMD for each course
of traverse:
Rule 1: The DMD of the first line/course is equal to
departure of the course
 Note: Coordinates of the last corner must be equal to
zero using the departures from the traverse, If the
coordinates are based from reference points, the
last coordinate must be equal to the first coordinates.

Area by Coordinate Method

Computation of area within a closed polygon is most
frequently done by the coordinate method. In this
procedure, coordinates of each angle point in the
figure must be known. They are normally obtained
by traversing, although any method that yields the
coordinates of these points is appropriate. Note: Coordinates of the last corner must be equal to
zero using the latitudes from the traverse, If the
coordinates are based from actual coordinates of
the reference point, the last coordinate must be
equal to the first coordinates.

Note: You may add additional row of the first corner

on the table for aid in calculation.