B.

TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

UNIT-I
1.2 DIFFRACTION

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Bending of light rays from the edges of the objects and spreading of light into
geometrical shadows of objects is wave nature of light. This phenomenon is known as
“diffraction”. Diffraction occurs near the edges of slits, apertures and other obstacles.
Diffraction is divided into two classes:
Fresnel diffraction: The correct interpretation of diffraction was proposed by Fresnel.
According to Fresnel, the diffraction phenomenon is due to the mutual interference of
secondary wavelets origination from various points of the same wave front which are not
blocked off by the obstacle. Here, the source of light & screen are at finite distance from the
obstacle. The incident wave front is either spherical or cylindrical.
Fraunhofer diffraction: In this case of diffraction source of light & screen are at infinite
distance from the obstacle. The incident wave front is plane and deals with parallel light rays.
The conditions required for fraunhofer diffraction are achieved by using lenses. Fresnel
diffraction is a general case and involves oblique angles of incidence while Fraunhofer
diffraction simplifies diffraction to normal incidence. By using biconvex lenses, finite distances
can be made infinite & hence in a Lab, one can achieve Fraunhofer condition from Fresnel
conditions. Fraunhofer diffraction is a special case of Fresnel diffraction.
Interpretation of Diffraction by Fresnel:
Diffraction is due to mutual interference of secondary wavelets originating from various
points of the wave front, which are not blocked off by an obstacle. Interference of secondary
wavelets produces diffraction. In Interference, interaction takes place between two separate
wave fronts originating from two coherent sources while in diffraction interaction takes place
between secondary wavelets originating from different points of the same wave front. In
interference pattern, regions of minimum intensity are usually perfectly dark while this is not
the case in diffraction pattern. Maxima in diffraction do not have the same intensity like in
interference.
Diffraction fringes are not equally spaced like in interference.
Applications
✓ Diffraction influences all segments of our daily lives.
✓ Diffraction being used in many fields of science and technology like physics, chemistry,
medicine, biology, geology oil/gas industry, communication and detection systems to
meet the needs of individual and society.
✓ X-ray diffraction is an effective approach to investigate the relationships that exist
between the structure and properties of materials.

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

1.2.4 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

Consider a plane wavefront WW’ of monochromatic light of wavelength λ incidenting

normally on a section AB of a narrow slit. ‘e’ be the width of the slit. Let the diffracted light
be focused by means of a convex lens on a screen placed in the focal plane of the lens.
According to Huygens-Fresnel, every point of the wavefront is a source of secondary
spherical wavelets, spreading in all directions radially. The secondary wavelets travelling
normally to the slit, i.e., along the direction OP, are brought to focus at P0 by the lens. Thus, P0
is a bright central image. The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ with the normal are
focused at a point P1 on the screen. The point P1 is of the minimum intensity or maximum
intensity depending upon the path difference between the secondary waves from the
corresponding points of the wavefront.
General Mathematical Theory
In order to find out intensity at P1, draw a perpendicular AC on BR, the path difference
between secondary wavelets from A and B in direction θ
BC = AB sin θ = e sin θ
and corresponding phase difference 2 e sin θ

Consider the width of the slit is divided into n equal parts and the amplitude of the wave
from each part is a.
The phase difference between any two consecutive waves from these parts would be
1 2
( Total phase ) =  e sin θ  = d ( say )
1
n n  
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes the resultant amplitude R is given by
nd   e sinθ 
a sin sin  
R= 2 =a   
sin
d   e sinθ 
sin  
2  n 
sin α
R=a where α =  e sin θ
sin ( / n ) 
sin α
=a
( / n )
sin α sin α
R = na =A
α α
Thus, the resultant amplitude is given by R = A sin α
α
when n→ ∞, a →0, but product na = A (remains finite)
Now, the intensity is given by
2
 sin α 
I = R 2 = A2  
 α 
2
 sin α 
I = I0  
 α 

Intensity distribution in single slit

1. Principal maximum
The expression for resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of a as

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

A 3 5 7 
R=  − + − +
 3! 5! 7! 
   
2 4 6

= A 1 − + − +
 3! 5! 7! 
If the negative terms vanish, the value of R will be maximum, i.e.,
 e sinθ
= = 0 or sin θ = 0 or θ = 0

Now, maximum value of R is A and intensity is proportional to A2.
The maximum is known as principal maximum
2. Minimum
The intensity positions intensity will be minimum when sin  = 0 . The values of a which satisfy
this equation are
 = ± π, ± 2π, ± 3π, ± 4π, …etc = ± mπ
πe sinθ
=  mπ

e sinθ =  m
where m =1,2,3, .... etc.
In this way we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of the principal
maximum. The value of m = 0 is not allowed, because when m = 0 then θ = 0 and this
corresponds to principal maximun.
3. Secondary maxima
In addition to principal maximum at 𝛼 = 0, there are weak secondary maxima between
equally spaced minima. The positions can be obtained with the rule of finding maxima and
minima of a given function in calculus. Differentiating the expression of/ with respect to a and
equating to zero, we have
d  2  sin   
2
dI
= A   =0
d d     
2sin   cos  − sin 
A2 . =0
  2

Here either sin 𝛼 = 0 or 𝛼 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 = 0

The equation 𝛼 = 0 gives the values of 𝛼 (except 0) for which the intensity is zero on the screen.

Hence, the positions of maxima are given by the roots of the equation
𝛼 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 = 0 or 𝛼 = tan 𝛼. (4)
The values of α satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically by plotting the curves
𝑦 = 𝛼 and 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 on the same graph.
The points of intersection of two curves give the values of α which satisfy eq. (2). The plots of
𝑦 = 𝛼 and 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 are shown in Fig. 2.2.

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

The points of intersections are

3 5
 = 0,  , etc.
2 2
𝛼 = 0 gives principal maximum.
Substituting approximate values of α in eq. (2), we get the intensities in various maxima
I 0 = A2 ( Principal maxima )
 sin ( 3 / 2 )  A2
I1 = A2   = approx. (1st subsidery maxima )
 3 / 2  22
 sin ( 5 / 2 )  A2
I 2 = A2   = approx. ( 2nd subsidery maxima )
 5 / 2  62
and so on.
From the expressions of I0, I1, I2, it is evident that most of the incident light is concentrated in
the principal maximum.
4. Intensity distribution graph
A graph showing the variation of
intensity with α is shown in fig. 2.3. The
diffraction pattern consists of a central
principal maximum occurring in the
direction of incident rays. There are
subsidiary maxima of decreasing
intensity on either sides of it at positions
 = 3 / 2, 5 / 2 etc, and so on.
Between subsidiary maxima, there are
minima at positions
 = ± π, ± 2π, ± 3π, ± 4π, …etc = ± mπ .
It should be noted that subsidiary
maxima do not fall exactly mid-way
between two minima, but they are
displaced towards the centre of the
pattern, of course, the displacement decreases as the order of maximum increases.

Applications
• Fraunhofer diffraction is used to model the diffraction of waves when the diffraction
pattern is viewed at a long distance from the diffracting object.
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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

• The Fraunhofer Diffraction technique is used widely for particle sizing applications in
the 1–200 μm size range.
• Fraunhofer diffraction method is used to study the plasma density fluctuations in high-
temperature plasmas using infrared lasers, namely (i) development of the general theory
of the Fraunhofer diffraction method, (ii) measurements of fluctuations propagating in
an azimuthal direction, (iii) measurements of fluctuation intensities, and (iv) application
in measurements on high-temperature plasmas.
1.2.5 RAYLEIGH'S CRITERION OF RESOLUTION
According to Rayleigh criterion, two sources are resolvable by an optical instrument
when the central maximum in the diffraction pattern of one falls over the first minimum in
the diffraction of the other and vice versa. Similarly, in case of spectral lines of two different
wavelengths, the lines will be resolved when the central maximum due to one wavelength falls
over the first minimum due to other and vice versa.

In order to illustrate the criterion let us consider the resolution of two wavelengths λ
and λ+dλ by a grating. Fig. 2.4 (a) shows the intensity curves of the diffraction patterns of two
wavelengths. The difference in wavelengths is such that their principal maxima are separately
visible. There is a distinct point of zero intensity in between the two. Hence, the two
wavelengths are resolved. Now, consider the case when the difference in wavelengths is
smaller and such that the central maximum of wavelengths coincides with the first minimum of
the other as shown in fig. 2.4 (b). The resultant intensity curve is shown by thick curve. The
curve shows a distinct dip in the middle of two central maxima, i.e., there is a noticeable
decrease in intensity between the two central maxima of two different wavelengths. Thus, the
two wavelengths can be distinguished from one another and according to Rayleigh they are
said to just resolved.
Again consider the case when the difference in wavelengths is so small that the central
maxima corresponding to two wavelengths come still closer as shown in fig. 2.4 (c). The
resultant intensity curve in this case is quite smooth without any dip thus giving the impression
as if there is only one wavelength source although somewhat bigger and stronger. Hence, the
two wavelengths are not resolved.
Thus, the two spectral lines can be resolved only upto a certain limit expressed by
Rayleigh criterion.

1.2.6 PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING (NORMAL INCIDENCE)

Construction
An arrangement contains large number of parallel slits of the same width and separated
by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. Fraunhofer used the first grating
consisting of a large number of parallel wires placed very closely side by side at regular

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

intervals. The diameters of the wires were of the order of 0.05 mm and their spacing, varied
from 0.0533 mm to 0.687 mm.
Now, gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent
material such as glass with a fine diamond point. The ruled lines are opaque to light while the
space between any two lines is transparent to light and acts as slit. This is known as plane
transmission grating.
On the other hand, if the lines are drawn on a silvered surface (plane or concave) then
light is reflected from the positions of mirrors in between any two lines. It is called reflection
plane or concave grating. When the spacing between the lines is of the order of the wavelength
of light, then an appreciable deviation of the light is produced.
Theory
Fig. 2.5 represents the section of a plane transmission grating placed perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. Let e be the width of each slit and d the width of each opaque part. Then
(e+d) is known as grating element. XY is the screen placed perpendicular to the plane of a
paper. Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally
on the grating. By Huygen's principle, each of the slit sends secondary wavelets in all
directions. The secondary wavelets travelling in the same direction of incident light will come
to a focus at a point P0 of the screen as the screen is placed at the focal plane of the convex
lens. (The point P0 will be a central maximum.)
Now, consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle θ with
the direction of the incident light. These waves reach point P1 on passing through the convex
lens in different phases. As a result dark and bright bands on both sides of central maximum
are obtained.
The intensity at point P1 may be considered by applying the theory of Fraunhofer
diffraction at a single slit. The wavelets proceeding from all points in a slit along the direction
 sin α 
are equivalent to a single wave of amplitude  A  starting from the middle point of the
 α 
 e sinθ
slit, where α = .

If there are N slits, then we have N diffracted waves, one each from the middle points
of the slits. The path difference between two consecutive slits is ( e + d ) sin  . Therefore, there
is a corresponding phase difference ( 2 /  ) ( e + d ) sin  between the two consecutive
waves. The phase difference is constant and it is 2 β.
Hence, the problem become to find the resultant amplitude of N vibrations each of amplitude
 sin α 
A  and having a common phase difference
 α 

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

( 2 /  ) ( e + d ) sin  = 2 (1)

By the method of vector addition of amplitudes,

sin nd
R=a 2
sin d
2
In the present case, a = A sin α , n = N and d = 2
α
sin α sin Nβ
R=A
α sin β
2
 sin α  sin 2 Nβ
And I =R =A 
2

2

 α  sin 2 β
2
 sin α 
The factor  A  gives the distribution of intensity due to a single slit while the factor
 α 
sin 2 Nβ
gives the distribution of intensity as a combined effect of all the slits.
sin 2 β
Intensity distribution in grating
Principal maxima
The intensity would be maximum when sin β = 0
or  =  n where n = 0,1, 2,3,...
But at the same time sin Nβ = 0 , so that the factor sin Nβ becomes indeterminate. It may be
sin β
evaluated by applying the Hospital's rule. Thus,
d
(sin Nβ)
sin Nβ dβ
lim = lim
β → n sin β β → n d
( sin β )
dβ
N cos Nβ
= lim = N
β → n cos 
2
 sin Nβ 
 =N
2
Hence lim 
β → n
 sin β 
The resultant intensity is 𝑁 2 , The maxima are most intense and are called as principal
maxima.The maxima are obtained for
 =  n
 /  ( e + d ) sin  = n 
or ( e + d ) sin  = n where n = 0,1, 2,3,...
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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

n = 0 corresponds to zero order maximum. For n =1,2,3,... etc., we obtain first, second, third,
etc., principal maxima respectively. The ± sign shows that there are two principal maxima of
the same order lying on either side of zero order maximum.
Minima
If sin Nβ = 0 but sin β ≠ 0
For minima sin Nβ = 0,
N  =  m
N  /  ( e + d ) sin =  m
A series of minima occur, when N (e+d) sin θ = ± mλ
where m has all integral values except 0, N, 2N, ...nN, because for these values sin β becomes
zero and we get principal maxima. Thus, m = 1,2,3,... (N -1). Hence, there are adjacent principal
maxima.
Secondary maxima
As there are (N -1) minima between two adjacent principal maxima there must be (N -
2) other maxima between two principal maxima. To find out the position of these secondary
maxima, we differentiate equation (3) with respect to β and then equate it to zero. Thus,
dI d  sin α  sin 2 Nβ 
2

=  A  =0
dβ dβ  α  sin 2β 
 A sin α   sin Nβ 
2

=   ( Ncos Nβ sin β − sin Nβ cosβ ) / sin β  = 0

2
 2
 α   sin β 
Ncos Nβsinβ − sin Nβ cosβ =0
N tanβ = tan Nβ
The roots of this equation other than those for which β =
±nπ (which correspond to principal maxima) give the positions
of secondary maxima. To find out the value of sin Nβ from
sin β
equation N tan β = tan Nβ, we make use of the triangle shown in
fig. 2.6.
From fig. 2.6,
N
sin Nβ =
N 2 − cot 2 β

sin 2 Nβ N2 N2
= =
sin 2β (N 2 − cot 2 β)  sin 2β (N 2 sin 2β + cot 2 β)
N2
=
1 + (N 2 − 1)sin 2β
Intensity of secondry maxima 1
= (4)
Intensity of principal maxima 1 + (N − 1)sin 2β
2

As N increases, the intensity of secondary maxima

relative to principal maxima decreases and becomes
negligible when N becomes large. Fig. 2.7
The resultant intensity distribution is complex and shown in
fig 2.7.

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

1.2.7 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH USING DIFFRACTION GRATING:

NORMAL INCIDENCE
Theory
The diffraction grating is often used in the laboratories for measuring wavelength of light. In a
diffraction grating, the principal maxima are obtained in the directions given by
(e+d) sin θ = nλ (1)
where (e+d) is the grating element, n is the order of maximum and θ is the angle of diffraction
corresponding to a particular wavelength. The number of lines N ruled on the grating (per inch)
are written over it by the manufacturers. Hence,
N (e+d) =1" = 2.54 cm or e+d = (2.54/N) cm
Thus, the determination of wavelength involves the measurement of angle of diffraction θ, for
a given wavelength in a particular order n. In the laboratory, the grating spectrum of a given
source of light (monochromatic or polychromatic) is obtained by using a spectrometer.
Adjustments
Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made:
(1) The spectrometer is adjusted for parallel rays by Schuster's method.
(2) The grating is adjusted for normal incidence.

a) The slit of the collimator is illuminated by the given source of light. Now, the position
of the telescope is adjusted in such a way that the image of the slit is focused on the
vertical cross-wire of the telescope. In this position the collimator and the telescope
are in the same line.
b) The position of the telescope is noted on the circular scale. It is now turned to 90° and
clamped. The given transmission grating is mounted at the centre of the prism table
such that the grating surface is perpendicular to the prism table.
c) The prism table is now rotated so that the image of the slit reflected from the grating
surface lies at the intersection of the cross-wires. In this position the grating is at 45°
to the incident light.
d) The prism table is suitably rotated through 45° in such a way that the grating is exactly
normal to the incident light. The prism table is clamped.
Measurement of θ.
(i) When the source of light emits radiations of different wavelengths, then the beam gets
dispersed by the grating and in each order a spectrum of the different wavelengths is
observed.

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(ii) The telescope is now turned to get the first order spectrum. The cross-wire is adjusted
on the line for which wavelength is to be determined (say Red). The position of
telescope (T) is shown by dotted lines in fig. 2.8. The readings of the two Vernier’s
are recorded.
(iii) The telescope is then turned to go to the first order on the other side and the cross-
wire is adjusted on the same coloured line (Red). The position of telescope (T) is
shown by dotted lines. The readings of two Vernier are again recorded.
(iv) The difference between readings of the same Vernier gives twice the angle of
diffraction for that line in first order. By substituting the value of θ in equation (1),
the wavelength of light can be calculated.
(v) The same observation may be repeated in second order and so on. By following the
same procedure, the wavelengths of different lines can be measured with the help of
grating.
1.2.8 RESOLVING POWER OF A GRATING
One of the important properties of a diffraction grating is its ability to separate spectral
lines which have nearly the same wavelength. The resolving power of a diffraction grating is
defined as the capacity to form separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which are very
close to each other.
This is measured by λ/dλ, where dλ is the smallest difference in two wavelengths which
are just resolvable by grating and λ is the wavelength of either of them or mean wavelength.
Expression for resolving power
Let AB represent the surface of a plane transmission grating having grating element
(e+d) and N total number of slits. Let a beam of light having two wavelengths λ and λ+dλ be
normally incident on the grating. In fig, XY is the field of view of the telescope, P1 is nth primary
maximum of a spectral line of wavelength λ at an angle of diffraction θn and P2 is the nth primary
maximum of wavelength (λ+dλ) at diffracting angle (θ+dθ).

According to Rayleigh criterion, the two wavelengths can be resolved if the position of
P2 corresponds to the first minimum of P1, i.e., the two lines will be resolved if the principal
maximum of (λ+dλ) [in nth order] in a direction (θn+dθn) falls over the first minimum of λ in
the same direction (θn+dθn). Now, we shall consider the first minimum of λ in the direction
(θn+dθn) in the following way:
The principal maximum of λ in the direction θn is given by

The equation of minima is

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B.TECH I SEMESTER ENGINEERING PHYSICS- UNIT I

where m has all integral values except 0, N, 2N,..., nN, because for these values we obtain
different maxima.
Thus, first minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction (θn+dθn) can be
obtained by substituting the value of m as (nN+1).
Therefore, first minimum in the direction θn+dθn is given by

The principal maximum of (λ+dλ) in direction (θn+dθn) is given by

Multiplying eq. (3) by N, we have

From eqs. (2) and (4), we get

This is the required expression.

Thus, the resolving power is directly proportional to (i) the order of the spectrum and (ii) the
total number of lines on the grating surface.

1.2.9 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISPERSIVE POWER AND RESOLVING POWER

OF A GRATING
Here, we would like to mention the difference between dispersive power and resolving power
of a grating. The differences are as follows:
1. The dispersive power of grating gives an idea of angular separation between two lines
produced by grating while resolving power tells the limit of just resolution of two closer
objects.
2. Dispersive power is measured by dθ/dλ (dθ being the angular separation between the lines).
𝑑𝜃 𝑛
Its value is given by = (𝑒+𝑑) .
𝑑𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆
The resolving power is measured by λ/dλ and is given by 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁.
3. When N (number of lines on grating surface) is increased, the dispersive power remains
unchanged while resolving power is increased.
4. If (e+d) [the grating element] is decreased, the dispersive power is increased while resolving
power remains unchanged.

Department of BS-Physics Division, VISHNU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHIMAVARAM [26]