Adama Science and Technology University

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

Soil Mechanics Lecture

By. Zerihun. L
2021 1
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Soil Mechanics

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 1. Introduction
 Why & when the study of Soil Mechanics born?

 What is Soil Mechanics?

 What is studied under Soil Mechanics?

 Where the application of soil mechanics is

applied?

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 Introduction,…………Cont’d
 From the early twentieth century, the rapid growth of
cities, industry, and commerce required numerous
building systems such us:
 Skyscrapers,
 Dams & Reservoirs,
 Highway & Railway,
 Airport,
 harbor facilities,
 Mining activities,
 Sanitation and Drainage Systems,
 and towers for communication systems.
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 Introduction,…………Cont’d

 Soils used as construction materials and as support

for these structures constructed on and within the
ground.
 These civil engineering structural systems require stable
and economic foundations, and new questions about
soils were asked.
What is the state of stress in a soil mass?
How much would a building settle?
How can one design safe and economic foundations?

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 Introduction,…………Cont’d

 We continue to ask these questions and to try to find

answers.
 To answer these questions we needed the help of some
rational method, and, consequently, soil mechanics was
born (Karl Terzaghi 1883–1963).

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 1.1. Definition of Soil Mechanics
What is Soil Mechanics?
 Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with
the study of the physical properties of soil and the
behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of
forces under different hydraulic state.
 The study of soil mechanics is used the application of
laws of mechanics and hydraulics to solve soil
engineering problems.

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1.2. Geotechnical Engineering and Soil
Mechanics
 Soil mechanics is a subset of geotechnical engineering,
which involves the application of soil mechanics and
geology to the analysis and design of geotechnical
systems.
 Every application of soil mechanics involves uncertainty
because of the variability of soils their stratification,
composition, and engineering properties.

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Geotechnical Engineering and Soil
Mechanics ,…………Cont’d
 Experience and approximate calculations are essential
for the successful application of soil mechanics to
practical problems.
 A satisfactory foundation design requires the proper
application of soil mechanics principles, accumulated
experience, and good judgment.

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Geotechnical Engineering and Soil Mechanics
,…………Cont’d
 In geotechnical engineering, the uncertainties of the
performance of soils, the uncertainties of the applied
loads, and the vagaries of natural forces nudge us to
compromise between sophisticated and simple analyses
or to use approximate methods.
 Stability should never be compromised for economy. An
unstable structure compromised to save a few dollars
can result in death and destruction.

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2. Physical Characteristics of Soils

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2.1. Introduction
 One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer
is to collect, classify and investigate the physical
properties of soils.
 The purpose of this chapter is:-
 to introduce the fundamental physical prosperities
of soils;
 deal with descriptions of soils, tests used to
determine the physical properties of soils, and soil
classification systems that are used in
geotechnical engineering practice.
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2.3. Phase relationship
 In engineering, we disassemble complex systems into
parts and then study each part and its relationship to
the whole. We will do the same for soils.
 Soils will be dismantled into three constituents such as:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 The relative proportions of each constituent
characterize soils and have considerable effects on
engineering properties of soil.

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Phase relationship…

Air
Water

Solid

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Phase relationship…

Solid Particles

Volume
Voids (air or water)

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Phase relationship…

Air

Water

Solid

Idealization:
Three Phase Diagram

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Phase relationship…

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 Phase relationship….
 The total volume of the soil is the sum of the volume of solids
(Vs), volume of water (Vw), and volume of air (Va); that is

V  Vs  Vw  Va  Vs  Vv
 The weight of the soil is the sum of the weight of solids (Ws), and
weight of water (Ww). The weight of air is negligible. Thus,

W  Ws  Ww
Definitions have been established to describe the proportion of
each constituent in soil.

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 Phase relationship….
 Water content (w) is the ratio, often expressed by percentage, of
the weight of water to the weight of solids.

Ww
w  100%
Ws
 Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
volume of solids.
Vv
e 
Vs
 Specific Volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of
solids.
V
V 
'
1 e
Vs
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 Phase relationship….
 Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.
Porosity is usually expressed as a percentage.
Vv
n 
V
 Porosity and void ratio are related by the expression,
e
n 
1 e
 Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to
the weight of water of equal volume:
Ws
Gs 
Vs  w 20
 Phase relationship….
 Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a
percentage, of the volume of water to the volume of voids:
Vw
S   Vw  Ww / w  wWs / w, Vv  eVs
Vv
wG s
S  wWs / weVs  or Se  wG s
e
 Unit weight is the weight of a soil per unit volume. We will use the
term bulk unit weight, to denote the unit weight of a soil:

W  Gs  Se 
     w
V  1 e  21
 Phase relationship….
Special Cases
 Saturated unit weight (S = 1):  Gs  e 
 sat    w
 1 e 

 Dry unit weight (S = 0) Ws  G s  

 d     w 
V 1  e  1 w

 Effective or buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil,

surrounded by water, per unit weight of soil:

 Gs  1 
   sat
'
  w    w
 1 e 
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 Phase relationship….
 Relative Density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of
packing between the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-
grained soils as determined by experiments:
emax  e
Dr 
emax  emin
 where emax : void ratio corresponding to the loosest possible state of
the soil, usually obtained by pouring the soil into a mold of known
volume
 emin: void ratio corresponding to the densest possible state of the soil,
usually obtained by vibrating the soil particles into a dense state
 e : the natural void ratio of the soil 23
 2.4 Index Property of Soils
2.4.1. Introduction
 Index properties are those properties which are not of prime
importance for the geotechnical engineers but are indicative to the
engineering properties of soil such as bearing capacity, shear strength,
permeability, slope stability, compressibility properties and so on.
 The soil properties on which their classification and identification are
based are known as index properties. The index properties which are
used are:
 Grain Size Distribution
 Consistency Limits
 Plasticity Index
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Introduction…

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 Index Property of Soils…
2.4.2. Mechanical Analysis of Soils

 The distribution of particle size or average grain diameter of

coarse-grained soils is obtained by screening a known weight of
the soil through a stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh size.

 A definite quantity of soil is dried in an electric oven (for 24hrs at

105°C) and put in the top sieve.

 The cover is placed over the top sieve and a pan below the lowest
sieve. Then the sieves are placed in the sieve shaker and are shaken
for few minutes.
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Mechanical Analysis …

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Mechanical Analysis …

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Mechanical Analysis …

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 Mechanical Analysis …
Two coefficients have been defined to provide guidance on
distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the particles.
A numerical measure of uniformity, called the uniformity coefficient,
Cu, defined as 𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
Where,
D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles are finer.
D10 is the size of particle at 10 percent finer on the gradation curve.
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
C < 4 for uniformly graded soil containing particles of the same size

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 Mechanical Analysis …
There is another step in the procedure to determine the gradation of
particles. This is based on the term called the coefficient of curvature
which is expressed as: 𝐷30 2
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷10 ×𝐷60
Where
D30 is the size of particle at 30 percent finer on the gradation curve.
A soil that has a coefficient of curvature (1<Cc<3) is well graded soil.
Contains wider assortment of particle sizes.
The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is diagnosed by
a coefficient of curvature outside the range 1 to 3 and a sudden change
of slope in the particle size distribution curve.
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 Mechanical Analysis …
 The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil. Regulating
the flow of water through soils.
 Two samples of soils are said to be similarly graded if their grain
size distribution curves are almost parallel to each other on a semi-
logarithmic plot.
 When the curves are almost parallel to each other the ratios of their
diameters at any percentage finer approximately remain constant.
 Such curves are useful in the design of filter materials around
drainage pipes.

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Mechanical Analysis …

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Mechanical Analysis …
Importance

Particle size analyses have many uses in engineering.

They are used to select aggregates for concrete, soils
for the construction of dams and highways, soils as
filters, and material for grouting and chemical injection

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 Mechanical Analysis …
Example-4
500gm of soil sample was taken and sieve analysis was carried out.
Answer the following question based on the data give in the table
below
a. Analysis % age of finer.
b. Plot a grain size distribution curve and Classify the soil based on
USCS. Comment on the shape of curve.
c. Calculate Uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature
d. Interpret based on the result of sieve analysis
Sieve size (mm) 75 37.5 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.0075 pan
Mass Retained
26 87 87 75 35
(gm) 0 45 103 46 23
 Mechanical Analysis …
Solution a
Sieve size Mass Retained %age Cum %age Cum %age
mm (gm) Retained Ret pass
75 0 0.00 0.00 100.00
37.5 26 5.28 5.28 94.72
19 45 9.15 14.43 85.57
9.5 87 17.68 32.11 67.89
4.75 103 20.93 53.05 46.95
2 87 17.68 70.73 29.27
0.425 46 9.35 80.08 19.92
0.075 75 15.24 95.33 4.67
PAN 23 4.67 100.00 0.00
Total 492 36
 Mechanical Analysis …

Check % age of the loss = (500-492)/500 =1.6% OK

Based on USCS:
D< 0.075mm is fine soil = 4.67%
0.075mm<D<0.425mm fine sand = 19.92-4.67 = 15.25%
0.425mm<D<2mm medium sand = 29.27-19.92 = 9.35%
2mm<D<4.75mm course sand = 46.95-29.27 =17.68 %
4.75mm<D<20mm fine gravel = 86.55-46.95 =39.6 %
20mm<D<75m course gravel = 100-86.55 =13.45 %

Gravel = 53.05%
Sand = 42.28%
Fine = 4.67% clay & silt 37
 Mechanical Analysis …
100

90

80

70
% Finer than

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

grain size (mm)

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 Mechanical Analysis …
c. Calculate Uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature
D60 = 7mm D30 = 2.2mm
D10 = 0.032mm effective particle diameter
D50 = 5.5mm average particle diameter

Uniformity Coefficient Cu= D60/D10 = 7/0.032 = 318 >6 ok

Coefficient of Curvature, Cc= (D30)2/ (D10) (D60)
= (2.2)2/ (0.032) (7) = 21 out of 1&3
d. Interpretation: The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-
graded.
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 2.4. 3.Consistance of Soils
 Consistency of soil is the physical state of soil with respect to
moisture content present at that time.

 By consistency means the relative ease with which soil can be

deformed.

 Consistency is related to the fine grained soil.

2.4. 3. 1. Consistency Limits or Atterberg Limits

 The moisture content at which the soil change from one state
to another state is called consistency limits or Atterberg limits.

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 Consistence of Soils…
 There are four different states of soil:
Solid State
Semi Solid State
Plastic State

Liquid State: states in order of increasing water

content.
 When water is added to the dry soil mass, its change from solid
state to liquid state passing through semi solid and plastic state.
 Atterberg identify some other limits which are most useful for
engineering purpose.
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Consistence of Soils…

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 Consistence of Soils…
 Liquid behavior: the state of soil that flow as viscous fluid.
 plastic behavior : the range of water content at which the
soil can be molded into any desired shape without rupture.
 The water content at which the soil changes from a liquid to
a plastic state is known as the liquid limit, denoted by LL.
 If drying is continued beyond the range of water content for
plastic behavior, the soil becomes a semisolid.

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 Consistence of Soils…
 The soil cannot be molded now without visible cracks
appearing.
 The water content at which the soil changes from a plastic to
a semisolid is known as the plastic limit, denoted by PL.
 The range of water contents over which the soil deforms
plastically is known as the plasticity index, PI:
PI = LL - PL

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 Consistence of Soils…
 As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called
the solid state.
 At this state, no further volume change occurs since
nearly all the water in the soil has been removed.
 The water content at which the soil changes from a
semisolid to a solid is called the shrinkage limit, denoted
by SL.

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 Consistence of Soils…
 The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination of the
swelling and shrinking capacity of soils.
 The liquid and plastic limits are called the Atterberg limits
after their originator, Swedish soil scientist A. Atterberg (1911).
 We have changed the states of fine-grained soils by changing
the water content

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 Consistence of Soils…
 A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is known as
the liquidity index (IL) and is expressed as:
w  wPL
IL 
IP
Description of soil strength based on liquidity index
Values of IL Description of soil strength
Semisolid state – high strength, brittle
IL < 0
(sudden) fracture is expected.
Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil
0 < IL < 1
deformation like a plastic material.
IL > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms
like a viscous fluid. 47
 Consistence of Soils…
 Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a
particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction.
 He coined a term called activity (A) to describe the
importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity
index. The equation for A is

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Consistence of Soils…

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 Consistence of Soils…
 Activity is one of the factors used in identifying
expansive or swelling soils.

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2.3. SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Why do we need to classify soils???????????
To describe various soil types encountered in the nature in systematic
way and gathering soils that have distinct physical properties in
groups and units.
Various Soil Classification Systems:
Geologic Soil Classification System
 Agronomic Soil Classification System
Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
American Association of State Highway Transportation
Officials System (AASHTO) 51
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
American Society for Testing and Materials System (ASTM)
Federal Aviation Agency System (FAA)
 Others
Of the number of classification systems proposed over the past few
decades, the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) system are the most widely used by current
practitioners, particularly in Developed Nations.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
Unified Soil Classification (USC) System:
The main Groups:
G = Gravel
S = Sand
M = Silt
C = Clay
O = Organic
For course grained soil
Poorly Graded = P
Well Graded = W
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
For Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay), the soil can be Low Plastic or
High Plastic
Low Plastic = L
High Plastic = H

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
Unified soil classification flowchart for coarse-grained soil

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
Unified soil classification flowchart for fine-grained soil.

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

57
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
60

50

40
Plasticity index, %

30

20
LL = 50

10

7
CL OR ML
4

0 16
0 10 20 25.5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Liqid limit, %
TP2 TP3 TP4 TP5 TP6 TP7 TP8 TP9 TP10 TP1
58
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
American Association of State Highway Transportation
Officials System (AASHTO): Rated soils according to their
suitability for support roadway pavement
Assign a group classification and a group index to the soil
A-1 ……………A-8 0……………..20
best soil …… worst soil good soil …….. poor soil

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION GUIDE LINE

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62
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…
The A-7 group is subdivided into A-7-5 or A-7-6 depending
on the plasticity index, IP.

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS…

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