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Noise
Patrick N. Breysse, PhD, CIH
Peter S.J. Lees, PhD, CIH
Johns Hopkins University
Section A
Introduction and Definitions
Noise and Sound
Noise—Excessive or unwanted sound
which potentially results in annoyance
and/or hearing loss (can be from
occupational and/or non-occupational
sources)
Sound—A pressure variation (wave)
that travels through air and is detected
by the human ear
Continued 4
Noise and Sound
Physical manifestation of noise is a
pressure wave
– Caused by vibrating surfaces
We can’t measure acoustic energy very
well, but we can measure sound
pressure well
– Sound pressure is a surrogate for
acoustic energy
5
Noise
Focus is on preventing hearing loss
associated with noise exposure
– There are other physiologic effects
of noise
Noise-induced hearing loss has been
observed for centuries
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, few
people were exposed to high noise
levels
6
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
(NIHL)
Noise-exposed workers are employed
in wide range of industries
– Agriculture, mining, construction,
manufacturing, transportation,
military
Continued 7
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
(NIHL)
NIOSH estimates that > 4 million
production workers are exposed to
hazardous noise
– This represents approximately 17%
of all production workers
8
Section B
Physics of Sound
Physics of Sound
Theory
– The vibration of a source causes
pressure changes in air which result
in pressure waves
– Perceived sound is comprised of
numerous pressure waves of
varying characteristics
Continued 10
Physics of Sound
Pressure wave characteristics
– Amplitude—The amount of sound
pressure measured in decibels (dB)
– Frequency—The rate of vibration
per unit time measured in cycles per
second, more commonly known as
hertz (Hz); range of normal
perception for young person is 20–
20,000 Hz
11
Octave Bands
Quantifies effective frequencies without
looking at each frequency one at a time
Standardized notation used to
characterize the frequency dependence
on the noise.
Continued 12
Octave Bands
Characterized by center frequency
Covering range of human hearing
– (20–20,000 Hz)
Continued 13
Octave Bands
fc = (f1f2)1/2
– Where: fc is center frequency and f1
and f2 are lower and upper band
edges respectively
Hz
31.5, 62, 125, 250, 500, 1K, 2K, 4K, 8K, 16K
14
Sound Pressure
Pressure is fundamental to acoustics
Definition
– Pressure = force per unit of area
Units
– Newtons per square meter (N/m2)—
Called a Pascal (modern unit)
– Dynes per square centimeter
(D/cm2)—Not commonly used
15
Sound Pressure
Human hearing covers a wide range of
sound pressures
– Threshold of hearing: 0.00002 Pa
– Loud noise: 200 Pa
Continued 16
Sound Pressure
Decibel (dB) scale is a log-based scale
developed to quantify sound
– Compresses range to 0–140 dB
– Scale starts at zero when sound
pressure equals the threshold of
human hearing
17
Section C
Decibel Notation
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
and Sound Pressure (Pa)
19
Sound Pressure
Decibel scale
⎛ acoustic energy ⎞
decibel = 10Log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ reference energy ⎠
– Reference energy is the threshold of
human hearing
– 10 * Bel = decibel (dB)
– Sound pressure level (SPL)
20
Decibel Scale
Acoustic energy cannot be readily
measured
Acoustic energy is proportional to the
square of the sound pressure
Therefore
⎛p ⎞ 2
dB = 10 log ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ po ⎠
Continued 21
Decibel Scale
Which is the same as
2
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ p⎞
dB =10 log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 20 log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ po ⎠ ⎝ po ⎠
– Where p is the sound pressure, and
po is the reference which is equal to
the threshold of human hearing (i.e.,
0.00002 Pa or 20 uPa)
22
Sound Pressure Exercises
If sound pressure is 0.02 Pa, what is
the sound pressure level?
⎛ 0.02Pa ⎞
20 × Log⎜ ⎟ = 60dB
⎝ 0.00002Pa ⎠
Continued 23
Sound Pressure Exercises
If sound pressure is 0.06 Pa, what is
the sound pressure level?
⎛ 0.06Pa ⎞
20 × Log⎜ ⎟ = 69.5dB
⎝ 0.00002Pa ⎠
24
Adding Sound Pressure Levels
Since SPLs are based on a log scale,
they cannot be added directly
– I.e., 80 dB + 80 dB ≠ 160 dB
⎛ n ⎛ SPL i ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
SPL T = 10 × Log
⎜ ∑ 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠
⎟
⎝ i =1
⎠
– Where: SPLT is the total sound
pressure level, and SPLi is the ith
sound pressure level to be summed
Continued 25
Adding Sound Pressure Levels
Given two machines producing 80 dB
each, what is the total SPL?
⎛ n ⎛ SPL i ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
SPL T = 10 × Log
⎜ ∑ 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠
⎟
⎝ i =1
⎠
(
= 10 × Log 10 + 10
(80/10) (80/10)
)
= 10 × Log (2 × 10 )8
= 83 dB
Continued 26
Adding Sound Pressure Levels
Important rule of thumb …
Adding two sound pressure levels of
equal value will always result in a 3 dB
increase!
– 80 dB + 80 dB = 83 dB
– 100 dB + 100 dB = 103 dB
– 40 dB + 40 dB = 43 dB
Continued 27
Adding Sound Pressure Levels
Given four machines producing 100 dB,
91dB, 90 dB, and 89 dB respectively,
what is the total sound pressure level?
⎛ n ⎛ SPL i ⎞ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
SPL T = 10 × Log ⎜⎜ ∑ 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠⎟
⎟
⎝ i=1 ⎠
= 10 × Log (10 (100/10) + 10 (91/10) + 10 (90/10) + 10 (89/10) )
= 10 × Log (1010 + 10 9.1 + 10 9 + 10 8 .9 )
= 101 .2dB
28
Section D
Sound Weighting Factors
Fletcher-Munson Curves
Adapted by CTLT 30
Sound Weighting
Weighting comes from Fletcher-
Munson Curves
– “A” – 40 Phon equal loudness
contour
– “B” – 70 Phon equal loudness
contour
– “C” – 100 Phon equal loudness
contour
Continued 31
Sound Weighting
dBA used for risk purposes
– De-emphasizes low and very high
frequencies which pose less of a risk
to hearing
dBC used for hearing protector
selection
Continued 32
Sound Weighting
Sound weighting filters are incorporated
into noise-measuring equipment
33
Section E
Standards and Guidelines
Noise Standards and Guidelines
Three parts to any standard or guideline:
1. Criteria level
– Eight-hour average SPL above
which risk for hearing loss exists
(usually either 85 or 90 dBA)
Continued 35
Noise Standards and Guidelines
Three parts to any standard or guideline:
2. Threshold level
– SPL below which no damage occurs
3. Exchange rate
– Based on a damage model
assumption
– Trade-off between exposure level
and exposure time
36
OSHA Noise PEL
Same as originally adopted in 1971
– Criteria level (PEL): 90 dBA
– Threshold level: 90 dBA
• Practical implication—Can be
exposed to 89 dBA forever
– Exchange rate: 5 dB
• 95 dBA for 4 hours is as bad as
90 dBA for 8 hours
37
OSHA PEL (1971–Present)
Exposure Time, Hrs PEL, dBA
No time limit <90
8 90
4 95
2 100
1 105
0.5 110
38
Hearing Conservation
Amendment to PEL
Hearing Conservation Amendment
(HCA) 1981–1983
Recognition that PEL was not
protective
– Action level = 50% of PEL = hearing
conservation program require
– Criteria level = 90 dBA
– Threshold level = 80 dBA
– Exchange rate = 5 dBA
39
OSHA Noise HCA (1983–Present)
Exposure Time, Hrs PEL, dBA
32 80
16 85
8 90
4 95
2 100
1 105
0.5 110
40
Calculating % Noise Dose
⎛ C1 C 2 Cn ⎞
% Dose = ⎜ + + … + ⎟ × 100
⎝T1 T 2 Tn ⎠
C = the actual time exposed at each dB
level
T = the time allowed to be exposed at
each dB level
41
% Noise Dose
Exercise 1A
Given four hours of 90 dBA exposure,
two hours of 95 dBA exposure, and two
hours of 85 dBA exposure, what is the
% dose using the PEL? (Is this person
overexposed compared to PEL?)
⎛4 2 2⎞
⎜ + + ⎟ × 100 = 100% of PEL
⎝8 4 ∞⎠
Answer: Borderline, since dose = 100%
42
% Noise Dose
Exercise 1B
Given four hours of 90 dBA exposure,
two hours of 95 dBA exposure, and two
hours of 85 dBA exposure, what is the
% dose using the HCA? (Does this
person need to be in a hearing
conservation program?)
⎛4 2 2 ⎞
⎜ + + ⎟ × 100 = 112.5%
⎝8 4 16 ⎠
Answer: Yes, since dose is >50%
43
% Noise Dose
Exercise 2A
Given four hrs of 80 dBA exposure, two
hours of 90 dBA exposure, and two
hours of 85 dBA exposure, what is the
% dose using the PEL? (Is this person
overexposed compared to PEL?)
⎛4 2 2⎞
⎜ + + ⎟ × 100 = 25% of PEL
⎝∞ 8 ∞⎠
Answer: No, since dose <100%
44
% Noise Dose
Exercise 2B
Given four hours of 80 dBA exposure,
two hours of 90 dBA exposure, and two
hours of 85 dBA exposure, what is the %
dose using the HCA? (Does this person
need to be in a hearing conservation
program?)
⎛ 4 2 2 ⎞
⎜ + + ⎟ × 100 = 50% of PEL
⎝ 32 8 16 ⎠
Answer: Borderline, since dose = 50%
45
Noise Exposure
In evaluating worker exposure to
noise, the industrial hygienist should
answer two main questions:
1. Is the OSHA PEL met or
exceeded?
2. Does the worker need to be in the
hearing conservation program?
Modern dosimeters calculate dose
both ways
46
TLV and REL for Noise
The ACGIH TLV and NIOSH REL
recommended for noise is as follows:
– Criteria level = 85 dBA,
– Threshold level = 80 dBA
– Exchange rate = 3 dBA
These guidelines are much more
protective
47
ACGIH and NIOSH Guidelines
Exposure Time, Hrs TLV/REL, dBA
25 80
11 82
8 85
5 88
2 91
0.5 110
48
Challenges
Reducing noise exposure in industry is
difficult since guarding and sound-
proofing materials make machines
harder to clean or are hard to clean
themselves, noise reduction is
expensive, etc.
Hearing protection is not very effective
because it is often not used properly
and is uncomfortable
49
