MATH 2013

Mathematics for Technicians III

by

Dr. Patrice Piggot-Cumberbatch

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1 Arithmetic and Geometric Series

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2 Matrices

Matrix Notation

Matrices and determinants are primarily used in engineering and science for solving linear simultaneous
equations. A matrix is an array of numbers or letters consisting of m rows and n columns enclosed in a pair of
curved or square brackets, and usually denoted by a capital letter. The numbers within this array are called the
elements of the matrix. The order of a matrix is the number of rows times the number of columns. Thus, a
matrix consisting of m rows and n columns is said to be of order ‘m × n’, read as ‘m by n.’

 3 4
  6 4 2
Thus,  1 7 is a 3 × 2 matrix and
    is a 2 × 3 matrix.
5 6 3 1 5
 
The coefficients of the variables for linear simultaneous equations may be shown in matrix form. Consider
the following linear simultaneous equations:

x + 2y = 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
4x – 5y = 6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

1 2 
In matrix notation, the coefficients of x and y are written as   , thereby occupying the same relative
 4  5
positions as in the equations (1) and (2) above. This is a 2 × 2 matrix and is called a second order matrix.

Similarly, the coefficients of p, q and r in the following equations:

p + q + r = 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
2p – 3q + 4r = 33 - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

3p – 2q – 2r = 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)

1 1 1 
 
become 2  3 4 in matrix form. This is a 3 × 3 matrix and is called a third order matrix.
 
3  2  2
Types of matrices

(i) Square matrix. A square matrix has the same number of rows and columns, i.e. m = n. The matrices in
the two sets of simultaneous equations above are square matrices:
1 1 1 
1 2   
The 2 × 2 matrix   and the 3 × 3 matrix  2  3 4  are both square matrices.
 4  5 3  2  2
 
(ii) Unit matrix, I. This is one in which the leading diagonal elements are 1, the remaining elements being 0.
N.B.: the leading diagonal in a matrix always runs from upper left to lower right (). For example, a second

1 0
order unit matrix is I =   . The unit matrix is the identity matrix for multiplication since it is analogous
0 1
to the number 1 in ordinary algebra.
The scope of this course does not go beyond 3 × 3 matrices.
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Addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices

In much the same way that there are rules governing addition, subtraction and multiplication of numbers
in arithmetic, there are similar rules associated with these operations in matrices. In other words, the rules of
matrices are such that they obey most of the laws governing the algebra of numbers. It should be appreciated
that a matrix cannot be expressed as a single numerical value. Once the basic procedures associated with
addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices have been mastered, we can use matrices in this way to solve
simultaneous equations.

Addition and subtraction of matrices

Only matrices of the same order can be added or subtracted, by adding or subtracting corresponding elements.

Worked example 1

 2 7  5  3 1  4
 3 0   2  1    
Let A =  , B =  , C =
 7  4  7 4    2 1 0  and D =  4 3 1 
 6 3 4  1 4 - 3 

Find: (i) A + B

(ii) B – A

(iii) D – C

(iv) C + D

  3 0   2  1   3  2 0  (1)    1  1
(i) A + B =   +   =   =  
 7  4    7 4   7  (7)  4  4   0 0 

 2  1   3 0   2  (3)  1  0   5  1
(ii) B – A =   –   =   =  
  7 4   7  4    7  7 4  (4)    14 8 

 3 1  4   2 7  5   3- 2 1- 7  4  (5) 
     
(iii) D – C = 4 3 1 –  2 1 0 = 4  ( 2) 3 -1 1- 0
     
 1 4 - 3   6 3 4   1- (-6) 4 - 3 - 3- 4 

 2 7  5   3 1  4   2  3 7 1  5  (4)   5 8  9 
       
(iv) C + D =
  2 1 0  +  4 3 1  =   2  4 1  3 0 1
 =  2 4 1 
 6 3 4   1 4 - 3   6 1 3  4 4  (-3)   7 7 1 
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Multiplication of matrices

(a) Scalar multiplication

When a matrix is multiplied by a number, called scalar multiplication, the resulting matrix is a single matrix of
the same order, in which each element of the original matrix has been multiplied by the number.

 3 0 
Thus, if A =   ,
 7  4

 3 0   6 0 
2A = 2   =  
 7  4   14  8 

(b) General matrix multiplication

Two matrices A and B can only be multiplied together when the number of columns in A is equal to the number of
rows in B. This is because the process of matrix multiplication depends on finding the sum of the products of the
corresponding rows in A with the corresponding columns in B. In general terms, when a matrix of order
m × n is multiplied by another matrix of order n × p, the resulting matrix is of the order m × p. These facts are
illustrated schematically below:

compatible for

multiplication

(m × n) × (n × p)

m×p

order of resulting matrix

Matrix multiplication is done by finding the sum of the products of the elements of each row of the first matrix and
the elements of each column of the second matrix.

a b  e f
For example, if A =   and B =  
c d  g h 

 ae  bg af  bh 
then A × B =  
 ce  dg cf  dh 
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Alternatively, if you’re the type of student who learns best by observing patterns, consider the following:

 C11 C12 
Let A × B = C where C =  
 C 21 C 22 

C11 is the sum of products of the 1st row elements of A and the 1st column elements of B, taken one at a time

C12 is the sum of products of the 1st row elements of A and the 2nd column elements of B, taken one at a time

C21 is the sum of products of the 2nd row elements of A and the 1st column elements of B, taken one at a time

C22 is the sum of products of the 2nd row elements of A and the 2nd column elements of B, taken one at a time

Worked example 2

 2 3  2 3
If A =   and B =   determine A × B and B × A.
 0 1 1 0

 2 3   2 3  [(2  2)  (3  1)] [(2  3)  (3  0)]  7 6 

A×B=   ×   =   =  
 0 1   1 0   [(0  2)  (1  1)] [(0  3)  (1  0)]   1 0 

 2 3   2 3  [(2  2)  (3  0)] [(2  3)  (3  1)]  4 9 

B×A=   ×   =   =  
 1 0   0 1   [(1  2)  (0  0)] [(1  3)  (0  1)]   2 3 

Worked example 3

 4 -7 6   4 
   
If C =  2 4 0 and D =  11 , determine C × D
   
 5 7 - 4  7 

 4 - 7 6   4   (4  4)  (7  11)  (6  7)   (16)  (77)  (42)   135 

         
C × D = 2 4
 0   11 = ( 2  4)  (4  11)  (0  7) = ( 8)  ( 44)  (0)
       =   52 
 5 7 - 4   7   (5  4)  (7  11)  (4  7)   (20)  (-77)  ( 28)   - 85 
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Worked example 4

 3 6 1
 2
 
1 0
 
Determine  5 - 2 7   0 1
3  
 5  1 0 
-1 0 
 3

 3 6 1  (3  1)  (6  0)  ( 1  1) (3  0)  (6  1)  ( 1  0) 
 2  
   1 0

2 2

2   2 2
 5 - 3 7    0 1  =  (5  1)  (- 3  0)  (7  1) (5  0)  (- 3  1)  (7  0) 
   1 0   
-1 0 5   (-1  1)  (0  0)  ( 5  1) (-1  0)  (0  1)  ( 5  0) 
 3  3 3 

 (3)  (0)  ( 1 ) (0)  (6)  (0)   3 1 6 

 2   2 
   
=  (5)  (0)  (7) (0)  (- 2 )  (0)  =  12 - 2 
3 3
 5   2 
 (-1)  (0)  ( ) (0)  (0)  (0)   0 
 3   3 

Worked example 5

 4 - 7 6   3.1 2.4 6.4 

   
  2 4 0     1.6 3.8 - 1.9  =
 5 7 - 4   5.3 3.4 - 4.8 
 (4  3.1)  (-7  -1.6)  (6  5.3) (4  2.4)  (-7  3.8)  (6  3.4) (4  6.4)  (-7  -1.9)  (6  -4.8) 
 
 (-2  3.1)  (4  -1.6)  (0  5.3) (-2  2.4)  (4  3.8)  (0  3.4) (-2  6.4)  (4  -1.9)  (0  -4.8) 
 (5  3.1)  (7  -1.6)  (-4  5.3) (5  2.4)  (7  3.8)  (-4  3.4) (5  6.4)  (7  -1.9)  (-4  -4.8) 
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Practice Questions

Simplify the following:

 3 4 0 2
   
(i)
  2 6 - 3    5 
 7 - 4 1   - 1

 3 4 0   2 - 5
   
(ii)
  2 6 - 3    5 - 6 
 7 - 4 1  -1 - 7

1 0 3 2 2 0 
   
(iii) 2 1 2  1 3 2
   
1 3 1   3 2 0 
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The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix

a b  a b
Given the 2 × 2 matrix, A =   , then the determinant of the matrix A, written A = = ad – bc
c d  c d
= the product of the leading diagonal elements – the product of the non-leading diagonal elements. [Recall that the
leading diagonal in a matrix runs from upper left to lower right ().] Therefore, the determinant of a matrix can be
expressed as a single value. Notice that the elements of the determinant of a matrix are written between vertical
lines.

A singular matrix is a matrix whose determinant is equal to zero. Thus,

a b
if A = = ad – bc = 0, then A is said to be a singular matrix.
c d

A non-singular matrix is a matrix whose determinant is not equal to zero, Thus,

a b
if A = = ad – bc ≠ 0, then A is said to be a non-singular matrix.
c d

Practice Questions

1. Evaluate the determinant of each of the following 2 × 2 matrices and state whether the matrix is singular or

non-singular.

3 2  2 1   4  6
(a) A =   (b) B =   (c) C =  
1 4  5  3  2 3 

3 x 4 
2. Find the values of x for which the matrix 6 x x  is a singular matrix.
 
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The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix

Before we are able to calculate the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, there are a few other definitions with which
we need to become familiar. During the following points, we will encounter these definitions as we learn how to
evaluate the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix:

A. The minor of an element of a 3 × 3 matrix is defined as the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix obtained by
“covering up” the row and column containing that particular element.

9 8 7
 
For example, in the 3 × 3 matrix 4 5 6 , if we “cover-up” the row and column containing the element 4, we
 
3 2 1
9
  8 7
will “cover up” the row (4 5 6) as well as the column 4 . The 2 × 2 matrix obtained is   and the
   2 1
3
8 7
determinant of this resulting matrix, = (8  1) – (7  2) = −6.
2 1

B. The sign of the minor of an element is dependent on its position within the 3 × 3 matrix. This sign is
determined by comparing the position of the element with the sign in the 3 × 3 sign pattern shown below:

  
 
    
  

Therefore, the sign of the minor of the element 4 is negative (−), and so the signed minor of the element 4
9 8 7
  8 7
in the matrix 4 5 6 is − = −(−6) = 6.
  2 1
 3 2 1 

The signed minor of an element is called the cofactor of the element.

C. The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is defined as the SUM of ‘the products of the elements and their cofactors’
of any “covered-up” row or column of the 3 × 3 matrix. Since any row or any column may be chosen to be
“covered-up”, there are 6 different ways to evaluate the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix ― all give the same
value!

TIP: If the matrix has the digit zero (0) as an element, it will be wise to choose to cover up either the row or
column containing the zero so that calculations will be minimised.

http://calculus-geometry.hubpages.com/hub/College-Algebra-How-to-Find-the-Determinant-and-Inverse-of-a-3x3-
Matrix#
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Worked example 6

 1 4  3
 
Calculate the determinant of the matrix  5 2 6
 
 1  4 2 

Recall: The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is defined as the SUM of ‘the products of the elements and their
cofactors’ of any row or any column of the 3 × 3 matrix.

  
 
The 3 × 3 sign pattern is   
 
  

Let us chose to “cover-up” the first row, which is (1 4 −3)

2 6
The cofactor of the element 1 is: + = (2  2) – (6  −4) = 28
4 2

5 6
The cofactor of the element 4 is: − = −[(−5  2) – (6  −1)] = −[−10−(−6)] = 4
1 2

5 2
The cofactor of the element −3 is: + = (−5  −4) – (2  −1) = 20−(−2) = 22
1  4

1 4 3
Therefore,  5 2 6 = (1  28) + (4  4) + (−3  22) = 28 + 16 – 66 = −22
1  4 2

Practice Questions

Evaluate the following:

8  2  10
(1) 2  3 2
6 3 8

3 4 1
(2) 2 0 7
1 3 2

4 7 6
(3)  2 4 0
5 7 4
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The inverse or reciprocal of a 3 × 3 matrix

Again, before we are able to determine the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix, there are a few other definitions with
which we need to become familiar. During the following points, we will encounter these definitions as we learn how
to determine the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix:

A. The adjoint of a 3 × 3 matrix, labelled ‘A’, is found by first obtaining a matrix of the cofactors of all the
elements within the matrix, labelled ‘B’. This resulting matrix ‘B’ is then transposed to give ‘BT’ ― the rows of ‘B’
are written as the columns of ‘BT’. The adjoint of the matrix ‘A’, written ‘adj A’ is equal to ‘B T’, i.e. adj A = BT.

B. The inverse of the matrix ‘A’, written A−1 is given by the formula:

1 adj A
A 
A

Worked example 7

 4 7 6 
 
Determine the inverse of the matrix A =  2 4 0
 
 5 7  4

  16  8  34 
 
The matrix of cofactors is B = 14  46  63
 
  24  12 2 

  16 14  24 
 
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors (i.e. the adjoint) is B =  8  46  12
T
 
  34  63 2 

 4 7 6 
 
The determinant of  2 4 0
  = −212
 5 7  4 

  16 14  24 
 
 8  46  12 
 4 7 6    34    16 14  24 
   63 2 
Hence the inverse of  2 4 0
  1   8  46  12 
  is  212
=
 212  
 5 7  4    34  63 2 

Practice Questions

Determine the inverse of the following matrices:

 3 6 1
 2
3 4 1  1 5  2  
   
(iii)  5  2 7 
(i)
 2 0 7  (ii)
 3  1 4  3
1  3  2  3 6  7  
1 0 3 
 5
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Solution of simultaneous equations in three unknowns using matrices (Inverse Rule)

To solve linear simultaneous equations with three unknowns by using matrices, perform the following steps:

(i) Write the equations in the standard form:

ax + by + cz = d - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
ex + fy + gz = h - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
ix + jy + kz = l - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)

(ii) Write the matrix equation corresponding to these equations:

a b c  x d 
     
e f g  y  =  h  - - - - - - - (4)
i k  z  l 
 j    

a b c
 
(iii) Determine the inverse of the matrix  e f g
i k 
 j

 x d 
   
(iv) Multiply each side of equation (4) by the inverse matrix and express in the form  y  =  h 
z  l 
   
Recall that A × A1 = I

(v) Solve for x, y and z by equating corresponding elements

(vi) Check the solution in the original equations

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Worked example 8

Use matrices to solve the simultaneous equations:

x + y + z = 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
2x − 3y + 4z = 33 - - - - - - - - - (2)

3x − 2y − 2z = 2 - - - - - - - - - - (3)

With reference to the summary of steps:

(i) The equations are already written in the standard form

1 1 1   x
     4 
(ii) The matrix equation is:  2  3 4   y  = 33 - - - - - - - (4)
 
 3  2  2   z   2 
  

1 1 1 
 
(iii) The inverse matrix of  2  3 4  is obtained as follows:
3  2  2
 

1 1 1   14 16 5 14 0 7 
     
Let A =  2  3 4  . The matrix of cofactors of A is B =  0  5 5  and BT =  16  5  2 
3  2  2 7  2  5   5 5  5
    

1 1 1 14 0 7 
 1 
Additionally, 2  3 4  35 . Hence, A = −1
16  5  2 
35  
3 2 2  5 5  5

(iv) Multiplying each side of equation (4) by the inverse (and remembering that A × A 1 = I) gives:

1 0 0   x  14 0 7  4
   1    
0 1 0  y  = 16  5  2    33 
0 0 1  z  35   2
    5 5  5  

 x  (14  4)  (0  33)  (7  2)   70   2 
  1   1    
  y = (16  4)  [(5)  33]  [(2)  2} =  105  =   3 

35  
 
35    
z  (5  4)  (5  33)  [(5)  2]   175   5 
 

(v) By equating corresponding elements we get: x = 2, y = 3 and z = 5.

(vi) Checking: equation (1): LHS = 2 − 3 + 5 = 4 = RHS

equation (2): LHS = (2 × 2) – [3 × (–3)] + (4 × 5) = 33 = RHS

equation (3): LHS = (3 × 2) – [2 × (–3)] – (2 × 5) = 2 = RHS

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Practice Questions

1. Use matrices (the Inverse Rule) to solve the simultaneous equations:

a + 2b + 3c = 5
2a − 3b − c=3
−3a + 4b + 5c = 3

2. Solve the following using the Inverse Rule:

x+y−z=4
x − 2y + 3z = −6
2x + 3y + z=7
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The solution of linear simultaneous equations having three unknowns using Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule states that if:

ax + by + cz = d - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
ex + fy + gz = h - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
ix + jy + kz = l - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)

Dx Dy D
then x , y and z  z where
D D D

a b c
D= e f g
i j k

d b c
Dx = h f g i.e. the x column has been replaced by the constants column
l j k

a d c
Dy = e h g i.e. the y column has been replaced by the constants column
i l k

a b d
Dz = e f h i.e. the z column has been replaced by the constants column
i j l
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Worked example 9

Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the simultaneous equations in worked example 8:

x + y + z = 4 - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
2x − 3y + 4z = 33 - - - - - - - - - (2)

3x − 2y − 2z = 2 - - - - - - - - - - (3)

Using a first row expansion in each case to evaluate the determinants:

1 1 1
D = 2 3 4 = [6 − (−8)] – (−4 – 12) + [−4 – (−9)] = 14 + 16 + 5 = 35
3 2 2

4 1 1
Dx = 33  3 4 = 4[6 − (−8)] – (−66 – 8) + [−66 – (−6)] = 56 + 74 − 60 = 70
2 2 2

1 4 1
Dy = 2 33 4 = (−66 − 8) – 4[(−4 – 12)] + (4 – 99) = −74 + 64 − 95 = −105
3 2 2

1 1 4
Dz = 2  3 33 = [(−6 – (−66)] – (4 – 99) + 4[−4 − (−9)] = 60 + 95 + 20 = 175
3 2 2

Dx Dy D
Using x , y and z  z
D D D

70  105 175
 x , y and z 
35 35 35

 x = 2, y = 3 and z = 5
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Practice Questions

1. Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the simultaneous equations:

a + 2b + 3c = 5
2a − 3b − c=3
−3a + 4b + 5c = 3

2. Solve the following simultaneous equations using Cramer’s Rule:

x+y−z=1
8x + 3y − 6z = 1

−4x − y + 3z = 1
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5 VECTORS

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

 define a vector
 add and subtract vectors; use the parallelogram law for addition of vectors
 multiply a vector by a scalar; appreciate the unit vector
 solve simple problems involving addition or subtraction of vectors

A physical quantity is always expressed as a numerical value with a unit, e.g. a length of 5m. A physical
quantity can be divided into two major groups, namely:
 scalar – has magnitude only e.g. speed, mass, energy. Scalar quantities can be added using the simple
rules of arithmetic, e.g. 30 kg + 12 kg = 42 kg
 vector – has both magnitude and direction e.g. velocity, force, momentum. Thus, a force of 50 newtons
acting downwards is a vector and so is a velocity of 30 m/s due west.

5.1 Representing vector quantities

We can represent a vector quantity by:
 drawing a straight line, the length of line being directly proportional to the magnitude of the quantity and the
direction of the line being in the same direction as the line of action of the quantity. An arrow is used to
indicate the direction of movement of the vector. The vector described by someone’s journey which starts at

point A and ends at point B can be abbreviated as AB . The tail of the arrow indicates the starting point and
the head of the arrow indicates the ending point. The head of the arrow is also described as the ‘nose’ of the
vector.

 x
 a column matrix   , where x represents the horizontal shift and y represents the vertical rise. For example,
 y
2
if the coordinates of a vector A are (2, 3), the position vector corresponding to OA is   . This may be
3
represented pictorially on Cartesian axes as follows:

The magnitude or modulus of the vector OA is the distance from O to A and is found by using Pythagoras’

Theorem. In this example, the magnitude of OA , written as OA is 2 2  32  13

 using bold print, e.g. a

 letters with an arrow above, e.g. a or A

 using underlined letters, e.g. a
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5.2 Vector addition

The sum of two or more vectors is called the resultant of the vectors. This resultant is the vector that is
equal to the vectors acting together, and can effectively be used to replace them.

The Triangle Law of Vectors

If two vectors are both going in the same direction, then the sum of the two vectors can be determined

by completing a triangle. Thus, if we are given the two vectors AB and BC , we complete the triangle ABC,

ensuring that the arrows on the vectors follow nose to tail. Thus, the vector AB can be added to BC because
the arrows on AB and BC follow nose to tail. AC is the resultant of these two vectors which is drawn from the
tail of the first vector to the nose of the last. The resultant can be marked with a double arrow.

5.3 The Parallelogram Law of Vectors

If two vectors are going in different directions, i.e. one clockwise and the other anticlockwise, then the
resultant vector can be obtained by constructing and completing a parallelogram using ruler, compass and
protractor.

Given the vectors OA and OB , we complete the parallelogram OARB.

Thus, OA = BR and OB = AR .

So, the resultant OR = OA + AR

= OB + BR
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5.4 Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

a b 
Given that A   
c d
 a b   ka kb 
then kA  k      where k is a constant.
 c d   kc kd 

Practice Questions

  2 5 4
If a =   , b =   and c =   , evaluate the following:
 3  1  0
(i) 2a + b+c
(ii) a − 2b + c
(iii) 3a − 4c

5.5 The unit vector

 0 .6 
A unit vector is any vector whose magnitude is 1, for example   .
 0. 8 

Given the vector V = ai + bj, then the unit vector associated with V is given by:

V  ai  bj   a   b 
  where      
 
i  
  2
j

V  a b   a b   a b 
2 2 2 2 2

Worked Example

 5i  9 j   5   9 
If V = 5i + 9j then    
   i    j
 5 9
2 2
  106   106 
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5.7 Operation on Vectors in Cartesian Form

If P is a point with coordinates (a, b, c), then its directed distance from O would be in the direction of the
positive x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively.

If we now use the unit vectors i, j and k in the directions of the Cartesian axes, then:
i is the unit vector in the direction Ox
j is the unit vector in the direction Oy
k is the unit vector in the direction Oz

Thus, the vector represented by OP can be written in the form ai + bj + ck.

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Let us now perform some operations on vectors in this new cartesian form.

1. If V1  a1i  b1 j and V2  a2i  b2 j

V1  V2  (a1  a2 )i  (b1  b2 ) j and V1  V2  (a1  a2 )i  (b1  b2 ) j

Worked Example 1

V1  3i  5 j V2  7i  8 j

V1  V2  (3  7)i  (5  8) j V1  V2  (3  7)i  (5  8) j
 10i  13 j  4i  3 j

2. If V1  a1i  b1 j  c1k and V2  a2i  b2 j  c2 k

V1  V2  (a1  a2 )i  (b1  b2 ) j  (c1  c2 )k and V1  V2  (a1  a2 )i  (b1  b2 ) j  (c1  c2 )k

Worked Example 2

V1  3i  7 j  5k V2  8i  6 j  2k

V1  V2  (3  8)i  (7  6) j  (5  2)k V1  V2  (3  8)i  (7  6) j  (5  2)k

 11i  13 j  7k  5i  j  3k

3. If we wish to determine the angle between two coplanar vectors V1 and V2, we use the dot/scalar
product, which relates length and angle.

The dot product of two vectors V1  a1i  b1 j  c1k and V2  a2i  b2 j  c2 k can be defined as:

V1  V2  (a1.a2 )  (b1.b2 )  (c1.c2 )

More generally, V1  V2  V1 V2 cos  where  is the angle between the two vectors, and

V1  (a1  b1  c1 ) V1  (a2  b2  c2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2

Thus, given two vectors, the angle between them can be found by rearranging the above formula to get:

V1  V2
  cos 1
V1 V2
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Worked Example 3

Find the angle between the vectors V1  2i  7 j and V1  9i  4 j

V1  22  72  53  7.2801 V2  92  42  97  9.8489

V1  V2
V1  V2  (2.9)  (7.4)  18  28  46 cos  
V1 V2

 46 
  cos1  1
  cos (0.6416)  50.1
0

 (7.2801)(9.8489) 

Worked Example 4

Find the angle between the vectors V1  2i  7 j  3k and V1  9i  4 j  5k

V1  22  72  32  62  7.8740 V2  92  42  52  122  11.0454

V1  V2
V1  V2  (2.9)  (7.4)  (3.5)  18  28  15  61 cos  
V1 V2

 61 
  cos1  1
  cos (0.7014)  45.5
0

 (7.8740)(11.0454) 
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Cross/Vector Product of Two Vectors

If a  a1i  a2 j  a3 k and b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k

i j k
a a3 a a3 a a2
Then a  b  a1 a2 a3  i 2 j 1 k 1
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

 (a2 b3  a3b2 ) i  (a1b3  a3b1 ) j  (a1b2  a2 b1 )k

NB:
The top row consists of the unit vectors in order i, j, k
The second row consists of the coefficients of a
The third row consists of the coefficients of b

Worked Example 5

If a  2i  4 j  3k and b  i  5 j  2k
i j k
Then a  b  2 4 3
1 5 2

4 3 2 3 2 4
i j k
5 2 1 2 1 5
 (8  15) i  (4  3) j  (10  4)k
  23 i  7 j  6k

http://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/vectors.html
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4 Complex Numbers

In all previous work, it has been assumed when any number, say k, is squared, the result is either positive or

zero, i.e. k 2≥ 0. Such numbers are called REAL numbers. Now, the opposite of REAL is IMAGINARY! Real and
imaginary numbers can be distinguished when solving quadratic equations via the quadratic formula. When:

b2 ̶ 4ac ≥ 0; the equation has REAL roots. Example 5 x2 ̶ 6x ̶ 2; 49x2 + 42x + 9 = 0

b2 ̶ 4ac < 0; there are no REAL roots and hence the introduction of IMAGINARY numbers

(b2 ̶ 4ac) is usually called the discriminant of the quadratic equation

Technically speaking, you can’t take the square root of a negative number because there are no numbers when
squared, would give a negative number. Every number was positive after you squared it. So, you couldn’t very
well square-root a negative number and expect to come up with anything sensible.

However, with the invention of a special number called “i” standing for imaginary, you can take the square root

of a negative number. In some texts, this special number is called “j” to not confuse “i” with the symbol for

electric current. The special number “j” has the special property that:

j=  1 ; j2 =   2
1 = ̶ 1

To calculate any high power of j, you can convert it to a lower power by taking the closest multiple of 4 that’s no
bigger than the exponent and subtracting this multiple from the component.

j1 = j j5 = j1 = j

j2 = ̶ 1 j6 = j2 = ̶ 1

j3 = ̶ j j7 = j3 = ̶ j

j4 = 1 j8 = j4 = 1

This is a cycle!
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5 Differential Equations
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