1.

Functional groups:
a. Chemical Groups can contribute to function by affecting
molecule’s shape. ( sex hormones such as estradiol and
testosterone).
i. Hydroxyl group (-OH)
ii. Carbonyl group (-C=O)
iii. Carboxyl group (-COOH)
iv. Amino group (-NH3)
v. Sulfhydryl group (-SH)
vi. Methyl group (-CH3)
2. Know all examples of :
a. Monosaccharides: Glucose (C=O, OH)(most common), Fructose,
Galactose
i. Major fuel for the cells
ii. Raw material for building molecules
b. Disaccharides: Lactose (Glucose & Galactose) and Sucrose
(Glucose & Fructose)
i. Formed by a dehydration reaction between two
monosaccharides.
ii. Covalent bond: Glycosidic Linkage
c. Polysaccharides: Polymers of sugar
i. Storage: plants and animals store sugar for later use in the
form of polysaccharides
1. Starch α(plant): Made of Glucose; the body uses
hydrolysis to break down starch into glucose when
fuel is needed.
2. Glycogen (animals): stored in the liver of muscle cells
of humans; Polymer of glucose.
ii. Structural polysaccharide: Cellulose is a major component
of the cell wall.
1. Cellulose β: polymer of glucose; different glycosidic
linkage: α 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 and β 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒.
Has a beta configuration.
2. Humans can not break down cellulose for glucose
because hydrolzye β 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 in our digestive tract.
3. Know the definitions of:
a. Atoms: the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties
of an element.
 b. Molecules: a chemical structure consisting of two or more units
called atoms.
c. Elements: A substance that cannot be broken down into other
substances by chemical reactions
d. Compounds: A substance composed of two or more elements in
a fixed ratio.
4. What is the difference between an acid and a base?
a. Acid: a substance that gives and increases the H+ concentration
of a solution
b. Base: A substance that reduces the H+ concentration of a solution
by taking hydrogen ions.
5. What is the difference between saturated fats and unsaturated fats?
a. Saturated fat: made from saturated fatty acids which have the
maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double
bonds. Solid at room temperature.
i. Example: animal fat
b. Unsaturated fats: Has one or more double bonds, so has less
hydrogen. Liquid at room temperature.
i. Plant fat and fish fat
6. What is a dehydration reaction? What is hydrolysis? What is the
difference?
a. Dehydration Reaction: Occurs when two monomers bond
together through the loss of a water molecule
b. Hydrolysis: Breaks the bond between a polymer by adding a
water molecule.
c. Difference: Dehydration reactions create a new bond by removing
water, while Hydrolysis breaks a bond by adding water.
7. Structural Organization of a Protein
a. Primary: Amino Acids. The specific order determines the
characteristics of the protein.
b. Secondary: Consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chains.
Forms alpha-helix and beta sheets.
c. Tertiary: Determined by interaction between various side chains:
hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and
disulfate bridges.
d. Quaternary Structure: some proteins have several polypeptide
chains so this level shows how they are arranged and how
interact.
8. Example: A= pH 4, B= pH 7, how many times more acidic is A than B?
a. Substance A is 1000 times more acidic than substance B.
Substance B is 1000 times more basic than substance A.
b. How much more H+ does B have than A?
i. Substance A would have 1000 times more H+ ions than B if
B is less acidic.
9. Given the DNA strand, what is the complementary strand? (Be aware of
order: ‘5 to 3’ or ‘3 to 5’).
a. Example Strand: 5’ - ATCCG- 3’
i. Complementary DNA: ‘3 - TAGGC- 5’
ii. Complementary mRNA: ‘3 – UAGGC– 5’
10. Which of the following can easily cross the cell membrane? Which of
the following can not cross the cell membrane easily?
a. Easily crosses the cell membrane: Nonpolar molecules (O2, CO2)
and small uncharged molecules.
b. Cannot easily cross: Ionic and polar molecules (Na+, CI-, glucose)
i. Ionic: charged particles (Na+, CI-)
ii. Polar: molecules with partial charges (H2O)
iii. Nonpolar: Molecules without charges (O2, CO2)
iv. Nonionic: Molecules that do not form ions (glucose)
11. What are endergonic and exergonic Reactions?
a. Endergonic: absorbs energy (photosynthesis)
b. Exergonic: Releases energy ( cellular respiration)
12. Know competitive and non-competitive inhibitors. Which one can be
overcome?
a. Competitive inhibitor: Competes with the substance for the active
site.
i. Can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.
b. Non-competitive inhibitor: Binds to a different part of the
enzyme, changing its shape.
i. Cannot be overcome by increasing substrate
concentration.
13. How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?
a. Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy
required for the reaction to proceed.
14. Transport Proteins
 a. Transports substances. Ex: hemoglobin transports oxygen around
the body. Some proteins transports molecules across the cell
membrane.
i. Carrier proteins: binds to molecules and change shape to
shuttle them across the membrane.
ii. Channel proteins: Form pores through which molecules
can pass.
15. Name the organelles using the description.
a. Nucleus: Contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA) and controls
cell activities
b. Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts and packages proteins and lipids
for storage or transport out of the cell.
c. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies
toxins.
d. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Studded with ribosomes;
synthesizes proteins.
e. Lysosomes:
16. Using a description of cytoskeleton elements, which of the three
elements are involved in the given function?
a. Microfilaments: Involved in cell movement and shape )actin
filaments).
b. Intermediate filaments: Provide structural support and stability
(keratin)
c. Microtubules: Involved in cell division, intracellular transport, and
structural support (tubulin)
17. Progeria: Sam Bruns
a. A rare genetic disorder that causes accelerated aging in children.
It is caused by a mutation in the LMNA gene, that encodes the
lamin A protein.
18. Know the four nucleotides of DNA and what is complementary base
pairing is? Know each pair.
a. Four Nucleotides: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C ), and
Guanine (G)
b. A pairs with T and C pairs with G.
19. Isotonic, hyperyonic, hypotonic solution. What happens to plant or
animal cell in each solution? Use the words learned in class for each
organism.
 a. Isotonic solution: No net movement of water, cell remains the
same size.
i. Plant cell: Flaccid
ii. Animal cell: Normal
b. Hypertonic solution: Water moves out of the cell; cell shrinks
i. Plant cell: Plasmolysis (cell death)
ii. Animal cell: Shriveled
c. Hypotonic solution: water moves into the cell; cell swells and may
burst
i. Plant cell: Turgid- firm
ii. Animal cell: Lysed.
20.Cylia, or Flagila: how do they bend and move? What components are
involved?
a. Both structures are made of microtubules arranged in a “9+2”
pattern. Dynein motor proteins cause bending and movement.
21. Difference between the semivascuse fluid in the cell, what is the name
or it? In eukaryotic cells, what is the region between the membrane…
called?
a. Cytosol: the semiviscause fluid that holds the subcellular
components together.
b. Eurkaryotic cells: the cytoplasm is the region between the
nucleus and plasma membrane.
22. Fill in the blank: what is the name of a substance that loves water or
hates water?
a. Hydrophilic: substances that love water.
b. Hydrophobic: Substances that hate water.
23. Using the atomic number of an atom, which of the following chemical
compounds pertains to the element?
a. The atomic number of an element tells the number of protons
which is unique to each element.
24.Why is water polar? What atoms are negative? Which are positive? How
does it form bonds?
a. Water is polar because it has polar covalent bonds and a bent
molecular shape. The oxygen atom is more electronegative than
the hydrogen atoms, causing a partial negative charge on the
oxygen and a partially positive charge on the hydrogens.
b. Positive and negative atoms:
i. Oxygen: partially negative charge
 ii. Hydrogen: Partially positive charge
c. Bond Formation: water molecules form hydrogen bonds due to
the attraction between teh partial positive charge of the
hydrogen atom and the partial negative charge of the oxygen
atom in neighboring water molecules.
25. How can water travel upwards from teh root to the leaves of a tree,
going against gravity?
a. Cohesion and adhesion helps the transport of water against
gravity in plants
b. Evaporation of water from the leaves can also help with water
transport
26. What is the mass number of an atom? What does it mean?
a. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in
an atom. It is represented by the letter “A”.
27. Given the description of DNA, what term can be used to define what is
described?
a. Base pairing: The specific hydrogen bonding between A to T and
C to G.
b. Double Helix: The spiral structure formed by two strands of DNA.
28. What are the monomers of the polymers protein, nucleic acid
carbohydrates?
a. Protein: amino acids
b. Nucleic acid: Nucleotides
c. Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (glucose)
d. Lipids Do not form polymers
29. List all given examples of polysaccharides of carbohydrates.
a. Starch: storage polysaccharide found in plants
b. Glycogen: storage polysaccharide found in animals
c. Cellulose: structural polysaccharide that makes up the cell wall in
plants
30. What are the two classes of nitrogenous bases? (Hint: pure silver
chemical name?)
a. Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
b. Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C ), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U) (in RNA)
31. DNA is double stranded, what are the special bonds that holds the sides
of the strands and ladders together?
a. Hydrogen bonds: holds the nitrogenous bases together. (A-T has 2
bonds; C-G has 3 bonds).
 b. Phosphodiester bonds: Holds the sugar-phosphate backbone
together

32. Levels of biological organization: which level fits the description?

a. Biosphere: All areas of the planet that has life.
b. Ecosystem: All living and nonliving things within an environment
c. Community: All teh different living organisms in an ecosystem
d. Population: All the living things of the same species that lives in a
specific area.
e. Organism: A living thing that carries out all seven characteristics
of life
f. Organs and Organ systems: A structure of the body made up of
tissues that work together to carry out specific functions
g. Tissues: Made up of cells; works together to carry out specialized
functions in the body.
h. Cell: life’s most basic/ fundamental unit of structure and function
i. Organelle: the various functional components in the cell
j. Molecule: A chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms.
33. What are the there types of Endocytosis? Do they required energy?
a. Endocytosis is the active process of transporting molecules into
the cell by engulfing it with its membrane.
i. Phagocytosis: “Cell Eating”, engulfing large particles.
ii. Pinocytosis: “Cell Drinking”, engulfung fluids.
 iii. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Specific molecules are
ingested after binding to receptors.
34. Know what happens to plant of animal cells ina given solution.
35. What is the difference between ionic bond, polar covalent bond, and
nonpolar covalent bonds?
a. Ionic Bond: Formed when electrons are transferred from one
atom to another, resulting in the formation of ions.
i. Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCI)
b. Polar Covalent Bond: Electrons are shared unequally between
atoms, leading to a partial charge.
i. Example: Water (H2O)
c. Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Electrons are shared equally between
atoms.
i. Example: Methane (CH4)
36. What are isotopes?
a. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. This results
in different mass numbers.
i. Example: Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14
37. Valence Electrons: which unique element found in many organic
molecules in valence?
a. Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that are involved in
the chemical bonding.
b. Carbon is unique because it has four valence electrons, allowing it
to form four covalent bonds with other atoms.
38. What are the types of linkages?
a. Glycodisic Linkage: Bonds between sugar molecules in
carbohydrates.
b. Ester Linkage: Bonds between fatty acid and glycerol in lipids.
c. Peptide bond: Bonds between amino acids in protein
d. Phosphodiester Linkage: Bonds between nucleotides in nucleic
acids.
39. Carbon Dioxide and the ocean?
a. Carbon Dioxide dissolves in ocean water , forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3), which can affect the pH of the ocean and contribute to
ocean acidification.
40. What are the seven characteristics of life?
a. Order: Organized structure in living things.
 b. Reproduction: Ability to produce new organisms.
c. Growth and Development: Organisms grow and develop
according to specific instructions coded in their genes.
d. Response to stimuli: Ability to respond to environmental changes.
e. Regulation: Ability to maintain homeostatis
f. Energy Processing: Use of energy for metabolic activity.
g. Evolutionary adaptation: Ability to adapt overtime through
evolution.
41. Why are viruses not considered to eb living things?
a. Cannot reproduce independently
b. Do not have energy Processing
42.What are the names of the dividing and non-dividing cells?
a. Chromatin: the form of DNA when the cell is not dividing
b. Chromosome: the condensed form of DNA during cell division
43. How is the pH of blood maintains and what components help keep it in
check?
a. Buffer system: Bicarbonate Buffer system neutralizes excess acids
and bases
b. Respiraroty Regulation: Adjusts the rate of CO2 removal from the
blood.
c. Renal Regulation: Kidneys excrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb
bicarbonate.
44. Carbon:
a. Biological importance: Fundamental components of
macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and
carbohydrates)
45.Which organelle is involved in two processes? Explain each and which
organs are involved (hint: cell eating)
a. Lysosome: Involved in digesting of macromolecules (autophagy)
and destruction of pathogens (phagocytosis)
46. Transfats: how are they made? Bonds? Soil or liquid at room temp?
a. Formation: Created by hydrogenating unsaturated fats
b. Bonds: Contains trans double bonds
c. State at room temperature: soild
47. Electronegativity: why is the compound considered polar?
a. Measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons
b. Polarity: a compound is polar if there is a significant difference in
electronegativity between atoms, causing partial charges.
48. Out of the 4 macromolecules, which is not a polymer, explain why?
a. Lipids are not considered polymers because they are not
composed of repeating monomer units.
49.How come humans cannot break down cellulose for glucose?
a. Humans lack the enzyme cellulase needed to break down
cellulose into glucose.
50. What is Tay-sachs Disease? What is wrong with the organelle? What is
defective?
a. Tay-sachs is a rare genetic disorder that results in the destruction
of verve cells in the brain and spinal cord.
b. Affected Organelle: Lysosomes
c. Defective component: the enzyme hexosaminidase A (HEXA)<
which is necessary for breaking down fatty substances called
gangliosides. Without the enzymes, gangliosides accumulate to
toxic levels, damaging the neurons.
51. What 2 organelles are important for detoxification of poison and drugs?
What are the 2 mechanisms they use?
a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:
i. Enzymatic Detoxification: Contains enzymes that
metabolize drugs and toxins
ii. Lipid metabolism: converts lipid-soluble drugs into
water-soluble forms for excretion
b. Peroxisomes:
i. Oxidation Reactions: Break down fatty acids and detoxify
harmful substances.
ii. Catalase activity: Converts hydrogen peroxide, a toxic
byproduct, into water and oxygen.