MODULE-II
Presented by:
OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
Parallel forces in a plane, Distributed Parallel forces in a plane
Couple, resolution of a force into a force and a couple, moment of a couple
Determination of center of centroid by direct integration method
Determination of center of gravity, and center of mass by direct integration method
Determination of centroid by the method of composite bodies
Determination of center of gravity, center of mass by the method of composite bodies
Area moment of inertia of composite plane figures and mass moment of inertia, radius of
gyration
Parallel axis theorem, Pappus theorems
Polar moment of inertia
Parallel forces lie in the same plane and have lines of action that never intersect each other.
The parallel forces may be, broadly, classified into the following two categories, depending
upon their directions :
Like parallel forces: The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other and all of
them act in the same direction as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a) are known as like parallel forces.
Unlike parallel forces: The forces, whose lines of action are parallel to each other and all of
them do not act in the same direction as shown in Fig. 4.1 (b) are known as unlike parallel
forces.
Example 1. Two like parallel forces of 50 N and 100 N act at the ends of a rod 360
mm long. Find the magnitude of the resultant force and the point where it acts
as shown in figure. ANS: 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑵 and 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒎
Example 2. Two unlike parallel forces of magnitude 400 N and 100 N are acting in
such a way that their lines of action are 150 mm apart. Determine the magnitude of
the resultant force and the point at which it acts as shown in figure.
ANS: 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑵 and 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎
Distributed forces are represented as a field of vectors. This is drawn as a number of
discrete vectors along a line, over a surface, or over a volume, that are connected with a line
or a surface as shown below.
The resultant of a distributed load is equal to the area of the load diagram. It is acting at the centroid of
that area as indicated. The figure below shows the three common distributed loads namely; rectangular
load, triangular load, and trapezoidal load.
Couple: A pair of two equal and unlike parallel forces (i.e. forces equal in
magnitude, with lines of action parallel to each other and acting in opposite
directions) is known as a couple.
Arm of a Couple: The perpendicular distance (a), between the lines of action of
the two equal and opposite parallel forces, is known as arm of the couple as
shown in Figure.
Moment of a Couple: The moment of a couple is the product of the force (i.e.,
one of the forces of the two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm of
the couple.
Mathematically: Moment of a couple = P × a
where , P = Magnitude of the force, and
a = Arm of the couple
Classification of Couples: The couples may be, broadly, classified into the following two categories,
depending upon their direction, in which the couple tends to rotate the body, on which it acts :
Clockwise couple: A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it acts, in a clockwise
direction, is known as a clockwise couple as shown in Figure (a). Such a couple is also called
positive couple.
Anticlockwise couple: A couple, whose tendency is to rotate the body, on which it acts, in an
anticlockwise direction, is known as an anticlockwise couple as shown in Figure (b). Such a couple
is also called a negative couple.
A couple (whether clockwise or anticlockwise) has the following characteristics :
The algebraic sum of the forces, constituting the couple, is zero.
The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces, constituting the couple, about any point
is the same, and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
A couple cannot be balanced by a single force. But it can be balanced only by a couple of
opposite sense.
Any no. of coplanar couples can be reduced to a single couple, whose magnitude will be
equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the couples.
Example 1. A square ABCD has forces acting along its sides as shown in Figure.
Find the values of P and Q, if the system reduces to a couple. Also find magnitude
of the couple, if the side of the square is 1 m.
ANS: 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟑 𝑵 ; 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟑 𝑵and 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆 = −𝟐𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝑵 − 𝒎
Example 2.
The point, through which the whole weight of the body acts, irrespective of its position, is
known as centre of gravity (briefly written as C.G.). It may be noted that everybody has one
and only one centre of gravity.
Rectangle Triangle
The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.) have only areas, but no mass. The
centre of area of such figures is known as centroid. The method of finding out the centroid
of a figure is the same as that of finding out the centre of gravity of a body.
METHODS FOR CENTRE OF GRAVITY: The centre of gravity (or centroid) may be found out
by any one of the following two methods:
1. By geometrical considerations
2. By moments
3. By graphical method
CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS: The centre of gravity of a
body may also be found out by moments as discussed below:
Consider a body of mass M whose centre of gravity is required to be
found out. Divide the body into small masses, whose centres of gravity
are known as shown in Figure.
Let m1, m2, m3....; etc. be the masses of the particles and (x1, y1), (x2,
y2), (x3, y3), ...... be the co-ordinates of the centres x of gravity from a
fixed point O as shown in Figure.
ഥ and 𝒚
Let 𝒙 ഥ be the co-ordinates of the centre of gravity of the body.
From the principle of moments, we know that
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF PLANE FIGURES:
The plane geometrical figures (such as T-section, I-section, L-section etc.) have only areas
but no mass. The centre of gravity of such figures is found out in the same way as that of
solid bodies.
The centreof area of such figures is known as centroid, and coincides with the centre of
gravity of the figure.
It is a common practice to use centre of gravity for centroid and vice versa.
Let ഥ and 𝒚
𝒙 ഥ be the co-ordinates of the centre of gravity with respect to some axis of reference, then
If the section is symmetrical about X-X axis, bisecting the web, therefore its centre of
gravity will lie on this axis.
Only to calculate 𝒙
ഥ.
If the section is symmetrical about Y-Y axis, bisecting the web, therefore its centre of
gravity will lie on this axis.
Only to calculate 𝒚ഥ.
𝟏
Triangle are = 𝒃𝒉
𝟐
Example 1. Find the centre of gravity of a 100 mm × 150 mm × 30 mm T-section.
ANS: ഥ = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝒚
Example 2. Find the centre of gravity of a channel section 100 mm × 50 mm × 15
mm.
ഥ
ANS:𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖 𝒎𝒎
Example 3. Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100 mm × 80 mm × 20
mm.
ANS: ഥ = 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎; 𝒚
𝒙 ഥ = 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎
Example 4. A uniform lamina shown in Figure consists of a rectangle, a circle and a triangle. Determine the centre
of gravity of the lamina. All dimensions are in mm.
ANS: ഥ = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎; 𝒚
𝒙 ഥ = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝒎𝒎
Example 5. A semicircular area is removed from a trapezium as shown in Figure (dimensions in mm). Determine
the centroid.
ANS: ഥ = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎; 𝒚
𝒙 ഥ = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
Example 6. A semicircle of 90 mm radius is cut out from a trapezium as shown in Figure. Find the position of the
centre of gravity of the figure.
ANS: ഥ = 𝒎𝒎; 𝒚
𝒙 ഥ = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎
The moment of a force (P) about a point, is the product of the force and perpendicular
distance (x) between the point and the line of action of the force (i.e. P.x).
This moment is also called first moment of force.
If this moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance (x)
between the point and the line of action of the force i.e. P.x (x) = 𝑃. 𝑋 2 ,
then this quantity is called moment of the moment of a force or second
moment of force or moment of inertia (briefly writteas M.I.).
Sometimes, instead of force, area or mass of a figure or body is taken into
consideration. Then the second moment is known as second moment of
area.
The moment of inertia of an area about an axis perpendicular to its plane at any point O
is equal to the sum of moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axis
through the same point O and lying in the plane of the area.
𝑰𝒁𝒁 = 𝑰𝑿𝑿 + 𝑰𝒀𝒀
Consider a small lamina (P) of area da having co-ordinates as x and y along OX and OY
two mutually perpendicular axes on a plane section as shown in Figure.
Now consider a plane OZ perpendicular to OX and OY.
Let (r) be the distance of the lamina (P) from Z-Z axis such that OP = r.
From the geometry of the figure, we find that 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
We know that the moment of inertia of the lamina P about X-X axis, 𝑰𝒀𝒀 = da. 𝒚𝟐
𝑰𝒀𝒀 = da. 𝒙𝟐 and 𝑰𝒁𝒁 = da. 𝒓𝟐 = da (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) = da. 𝒙𝟐 + da. = 𝑰𝑿𝑿 + 𝑰𝒀𝒀
Example 6. Find the moment of inertia of a hollow rectangular section about its centre of gravity if the external
dimensions are breadth 60 mm, depth 80 mm and internal dimensions are breadth 30 mm and depth 40 mm
respectively.
ANS:
It states, If the moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis through its centre of
gravity is denoted by 𝑰𝑮 , then moment of inertia of the area about any other axis AB,
parallel to the first, and at a distance h from the centre of gravity is given by:.
𝑰𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝑮 + 𝒂𝒉𝟐
where
𝑰𝑨𝑩 = Moment of inertia of the area about an axis AB,
𝑰𝑮 = Moment of Inertia of the area about its centre of gravity
a= Area of the section, and
h = Distance between centre of gravity of the section and axis AB.
Example 6. Find the moment of inertia of a T-section with flange as 150 mm × 50 mm
and web as 150 mm × 50 mm about X-X and Y-Y axes through the centre of gravity of the section.
ANS:
Example 6. Find the moment of inertia about the centroidal X-X and Y-Y axes of the angle section shown in Figure.
ANS:
Example 6. Find the moment of inertia of a hollow section shown in Figure about an axis passing through its
centre of gravity or parallel X-X axis.
ANS:
Consider a triangular section ABC whose moment of inertia is required to be found out.
Let b = Base of the triangular section and
h = Height of the triangular section.
Now consider a small strip PQ of thickness dx at a distance of x from the vertex
A as shown in Figure. From the geometry of the figure,
we find that the two triangles APQ and ABC are similar.
Therefore.
Pappus's theorem (also known as Pappus's centroid theorem) deals with the surface
area generated by rotating a curve and the volumes generated by rotating a surface.
The Pappus's theorem is actually two theorems that allow us to find surface areas and
volumes without using integration.
Pappus's Theorem for Surface Area
The first theorem of Pappus states that the surface area A of a surface of revolution
obtained by rotating a plane curve C about a non-intersecting axis which lies in the
same plane is equal to the product of the curve length L and the distance d traveled by
the centroid of C.
Pappus's Theorem for Volume
The second theorem of Pappus states that the volume of a solid of revolution obtained
by rotating a lamina F about a non-intersecting axis lying in the same plane is equal to
the product of the area A of the lamina F and the distance d traveled by the centroid of
F.
Pappus's theorem (also known as Pappus's centroid theorem) deals with the surface area generated by rotating a curve and
the volumes generated by rotating a surface.
The Pappus's theorem is actually two theorems that allow us to find surface areas and volumes without using integration.
Theorem I: The area of surface of revolution is equal to the product of
length of the generating curve and the distance travelled by the centroid
of the generating curve while generating that surface.
If the centroid of a generating curve of length l is at distance ̅ from
the axis of rotation, Distance travelled by centroid (l) = 2𝜋 ̅
𝐴 =2𝜋 ̅𝑙
Theorem II: The volume of a body of revolution is equal to the product
of generating area and the distance travelled by centroid of the
generating area while generating that volume.
If A = Generating area
and ̅ = Distance of centroid of generating area from axis of rotation,
Distance travelled by centroid of generating area (A) = 2𝜋 ̅
𝑉 =2𝜋 ̅𝐴
