INCULCATING CONCEPTS

I. Introduction
Research Approaches are plans and the procedures for research that span the steps from
STARTING ACCURATELY broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This plan
involves several decisions, and they need not be taken in the order in which they make sense to us
and the order of their presentation here.

Learning Objectives The overall decision involves which approach should be used to study a topic. Informing this
decision should be the philosophical assumptions1 the researcher brings to the study; procedures
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: of inquiry (called research designs)2; and specific research methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
• Define quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches.
The selection of a research approach is also based on the nature of the research problem1 or issue
• Discuss how philosophy, designs, and methods intersect when one uses one of the approaches. being addressed, the researchers’ personal experiences2, and the audiences3 for the study
• Review different philosophical stances (Creswell, 2018).
• Describe the types of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs
• Discuss the methods associated with each design. Moreover, ethics is very vital in research. Ethics are the moral principles by which we conduct
• Identify the six steps in the process of research ourselves. Psychological ethics, then, are the moral principles by which psychologists conduct
• Discuss ethics in conducting research themselves. It is wrong to regard ethics as being merely the rules or regulations which govern conduct.
The activities of psychologists are far too varied and complex for that. Psychological work inevitably
In this chapter, let’s begin by defining quantitative, qualitative, and mixed throws up situations which are genuinely dilemmas which no amount of rules or regulations could
methods research and discuss them as research designs. These designs are plans for a effectively police (Howitt & Cramer, 2011).
study, and they include three important elements: philosophical assumptions, strategies What is Research?
of inquiry, and specific research methods. Each of these elements is discussed in detail.
The choice of research design is based on considering these three elements as well as • Defined as a careful, systematic study in a field of knowledge to discover or establish facts or
the research problem in the study, the personal experiences of the researcher. and the principles (Webster).
audiences for whom the research study will be written. This chapter should help • Systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find an answer or a solution to a problem,
proposal developers decide whether a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods and to validate or test an existing theory.
design is suitable for their studies. • Accdg. to Calderon & Gonzales -Research is a purposive, systematic and scientific process of
gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting and interpreting data for the solution of a
problem, for prediction, for intention, for discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification
of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

Purpose of Research
Main Purpose: To serve man. (Good, 1972)

Goals of Research
1. Having a good life;
2. Satisfy man’s craving for more understanding;
STIMULATING LEARNING 3. Improve one’s judgment;
4. Reduce the burden of work
A lot of students regard research as a tedious academic workload. In your own
perception, how do you perceive research as part of your life as a Psychology student? Kindly
write your answer in the comment section at our Google Classroom. Points will be
considered as Class Participation (5 pts).
II. THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH APPROACH Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

The Three Approaches to Research Criteria Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Purpose To understand & interpret1 social To test hypotheses1, look at cause &
Approaches Description interactions. effect, & make predictions.
Qualitative Research - Is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
Group Studied Smaller & not randomly2 selected. Larger & randomly2 selected.
- The process of research involves emerging questions and
Variables Study of the whole3, not variables. Specific variables3 studied
procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting,
data analysis inductively building from particulars to general Type of Data Words, images, or objects.4 Numbers and statistics4
themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the Collected
meaning of the data. Form of Data Qualitative data such as open- Quantitative data based on precise
Collected ended responses5, interviews, measurements using structured &
- The final written report has a flexible structure.
participant observations, field validated data-collection instruments.5
- Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking notes, & reflections.
at research that honors an inductive style (from specific cases to Type of Data Identify patterns, features, themes6. Identify statistical relationships6.
more general conclusions; to form a hypothesis), a focus on Analysis
individual meaning, and the importance of reporting the Objectivity and Subjectivity7 is expected. Objectivity7 is critical.
complexity of a situation. Subjectivity
Quantitative Research - Is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the Role of Researcher & their biases may be Researcher & their biases are not
relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be Researcher known8 to participants in the known8 to participants in the study, &
measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be study, & participant characteristics participant characteristics are
analyzed using statistical procedures. may be known8 to the researcher. deliberately hidden8 from the
researcher (double blind studies).
- The final written report has a set structure consisting of
Results Particular or specialized findings Generalizable findings9 that can be
introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and
that is less generalizable9. applied to other populations.
discussion.
Scientific Method Exploratory or bottom–up: the Confirmatory or top-down: the
- Those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about researcher generates a new researcher tests the hypothesis10 and
testing theories deductively (from general ideas/principles to hypothesis10 and theory from the theory with the data.
specific conclusions/instances; test the principles of a theory), data collected.
building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative or View of Human Dynamic, Situational, Social, & Regular & Predictable.11
counterfactual explanations, and being able to generalize and Behavior Personal.11
replicate the findings. Research Explore, Discover, & Construct.12 Describe, Explain, & Predict.12
Mixed Methods Research - Resides in the middle of this continuum because it incorporates Objectives
elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Focus Wide-angle lens13; examines the Narrow-angle lens13; tests a specific
- Is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and breadth & depth of phenomena. hypothesis.
qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using
distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and Nature of Study behavior in a natural Study behavior under controlled
theoretical frameworks. Observation environment.14 conditions14; isolate causal effects.

- The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration Nature of Reality Multiple realities15; subjective. Single reality15; objective.
of qualitative and quantitative data yields additional insight Final Report Narrative report with contextual Statistical report with correlations,
beyond the information provided by either the quantitative or
description & direct quotations 16 comparisons of means, & statistical
qualitative data alone. from research participants. significance of findings.16
III. Three Components Involved in an Approach to research involves 2. THE CONSTRUCTIVIST WORLDVIEW
A. Philosophical assumptions, - Ideas came from Mannheim and from works such as Berger and Luckmann’s (1967)
B. Research design, and - The Social Construction of Reality and Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry.
C. Research methods or procedures
Major Elements
The Broad Research Approach is the plan or proposal to conduct research, involves the intersection of philosophy, research designs,
and specific methods. In planning a study, researchers need to think through the philosophical worldview assumptions that they bring to
a. Understanding
the study, the research design that is related to this worldview, and the specific methods or procedures of research that translate the
approach into practice. – individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work.

A. PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEWS b. Multiple participant meanings – Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences
– meanings directed toward certain objects or things. These meanings are varied and multiple, leading the
Worldview researcher to look for the complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas.
- “A basic set of beliefs that guide action” (Guba, 1990, p. 17). Others have called them paradigms (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011; The goal of the research is to rely as much as possible on the participants’ views of the situation being studied.
Mertens, 2010); epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998), or broadly conceived research methodologies (Neuman, 2009).
The questions become broad and general so that the participants can construct the meaning of a situation,
typically forged in discussions or interactions with other persons. The more open-ended the questioning, the
1. POSTPOSITIVIST WORLDVIEW better, as the researcher listens carefully to what people say or do in their life settings.
• Assumptions hold true more for quantitative research than qualitative research
• Also called positivist/postpositivist research, empirical science, and postpositivism.
c. Social and historical construction
• It represents the thinking after positivism, challenging the traditional notion of the absolute truth of knowledge (Phillips & Burbules,
2000) and recognizing that we cannot be absolutely positive about our claims of knowledge when studying the behavior and actions – Often these subjective meanings are negotiated socially and historically. They are not simply imprinted on
of humans. individuals but are formed through interaction with others (hence social constructivism) and through historical
• Comes from 19th-century writers, such as Comte, Mill, Durkheim, Newton, and Locke (Smith, 1983) and more recently from writers and cultural norms that operate in individuals’ lives. Thus, constructivist researchers often address the processes
such as Phillips and Burbules (2000). of interaction among individuals. They also focus on the specific contexts in which people live and work in order
Major Elements to understand the historical and cultural settings of the participants. Researchers recognize that their own
backgrounds shape their interpretation, and they position themselves in the research to acknowledge how their
a. Determinism
Problems studied reflect the need to examine and assess the causes that influence outcomes, such as those found in experiments. interpretation flows from their personal, cultural, and historical experiences.
b. Reductionism
The intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set to test, such as the variables that comprise hypotheses and research d. Theory Generation
questions. – The researcher’s intent is to make sense of (or interpret) the meanings others have about the world
c. Empirical Observation and Measurement - Rather than starting with a theory (as in post positivism), inquirers generate or inductively develop a theory or
The knowledge that develops through a postpositivist lens is based on careful observation and measurement of the objective reality
pattern of meaning.
that exists “out there” in the world. Thus, developing numeric measures of observations and studying the behavior of individuals
becomes paramount for a postpositivist.
Key Assumptions of this position (Crotty, 1998):
d. Theory Verification
Laws or theories need to be tested or verified and refined so that we can understand the world. Thus, in the scientific method—the
a. Human beings construct meanings as they engage with the world they are interpreting.
accepted approach to research by post positivists—a researcher begins with a theory, collects data that either supports or refutes
the theory, and then makes necessary revisions and conducts additional tests.
Qualitative researchers tend to use open-ended questions so that the participants can share their views.
b. Humans engage with their world and make sense of the world based on their historical and social perspectives
Key Assumptions of This Position (Phillips & Burbules, 2000): We are all born into a world of meaning bestowed upon us by our culture. Thus, qualitative researchers seek to
a. Knowledge is conjectural (and antifoundational)—absolute truth can never be found. understand the context or setting of the participants through visiting this context and gathering information
Thus, evidence established in research is always imperfect and fallible. It is for this reason that researchers state that they do not personally. They also interpret what they find, an interpretation shaped by the researcher’s own experiences and
prove a hypothesis; instead, they indicate a failure to reject the hypothesis.
background.
b. Research is the process of making claims and then refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted.
Most quantitative research, for example, starts with the test of a theory.
c. The basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a human community.
The process of qualitative research is largely inductive; the inquirer generates meaning from the data collected in
c. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape knowledge.
In practice, the researcher collects information on instruments based on measures completed by the participants or by the field
observations recorded by the researcher.
d. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements, ones that can serve to explain the situation of concern or that describe the
causal relationships of interest.
In quantitative studies, researchers advance the relationship among variables and pose this in terms of questions or hypotheses.
e. Being objective is an essential aspect of competent inquiry; researchers must examine methods and conclusions for bias.
For example, standard of validity and reliability are important in quantitative research.
3. THE TRANSFORMATIVE WORLDVIEW 4. THE PRAGMATIC WORLDVIEW
– Arose during the 1980s and 1990s from individuals who felt that the postpositivist assumptions imposed – Derives from the work of Peirce, James, Mead, and Dewey (Cherryholmes, 1992).
structural laws and theories that did not fit marginalized individuals in our society or issues of power and social – Other writers include Murphy (1990), Patton (1990), and Rorty (1990).
justice, discrimination, and oppression that needed to be addressed.
– It includes groups of researchers that are critical theorists
Major Elements
– Participatory action researchers; marxists; feminists; racial and ethnic minorities; persons with disabilities;
indigenous and postcolonial peoples; and members of the LGBTQ+ a. Consequences of actions
– arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions (as in
Major Elements
postpositivism).
a. Political
Holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social b. Problem Centered
oppression at whatever levels it occurs (Mertens, 2010). Thus, the research contains an action agenda for – There is a concern with applications—what works—and solutions to problems (Patton, 1990).
reform that may change lives of the participants, the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the
Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the research problem and question and
researcher’s life.
use all approaches available to understand the problem.
b. Power and justice oriented c. Pluralistic
Specific issues need to be addressed that speak to important social issues of the day, issues such as
– Patton (1990), and Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010) convey its importance for focusing attention on
empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and alienation. The researcher often begins
with one of these issues as the focal point of the study.
the research problem in social science research and then using pluralistic approaches to derive
knowledge about the problem.
c. Collaborative
1. Real – world practice oriented.
This research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as to not further marginalize the
participants as a result of the inquiry. In this sense, the participants may help design questions, collect data,
– “Truth is what works at the time”.
analyze information, or reap the rewards of the research.

d. Change-oriented
Provides a voice for these participants, raising their consciousness or advancing an agenda for change to
improve their lives. It becomes a united voice for reform and change. This focuses on the needs of groups and
individuals in our society that may be marginalized or disenfranchised. Therefore, theoretical perspectives may
be integrated with the philosophical assumptions that construct a picture of the issues being examined, the
people to be studied, and the changes that are needed, such as feminist perspectives, racialized discourses,
critical theory, queer theory, and disability theory.

Key Assumptions of this position (Mertens, 2010):

a. It places central importance on the study of lives and experiences of diverse groups that have
traditionally been marginalized. Of special interest for these diverse groups is how their lives have
been constrained by oppressors and the strategies that they use to resist, challenge, and subvert
these constraints.
b. In studying these diverse groups, the research focuses on inequities based on gender, race, ethnicity,
disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic class that result in asymmetric power relationships.
c. The research in the transformative worldview links political and social action to these inequities.
d. Transformative research uses a program theory of beliefs about how a program works and why the
problems of oppression, domination, and power relationships exist.
B. RESEARCH DESIGNS a. Convergent Mixed Method is a form of mixed methods design in which the researcher converges or merges
quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this
- Research designs are types of inquiry within qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches that
design, the investigator typically collects both forms of data at roughly the same time and then integrates the
provide specific direction for procedures in a research study.
information in the interpretation of the overall results. Contradictions or incongruent findings are explained or
- Others have called them strategies of inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). further probed in this design.
- The designs available to the researcher have grown over the years as computer technology has advanced our b. Explanatory Sequential Mixed Method is one in which the researcher first conducts quantitative research, analyzes
data analysis and ability to analyze complex models, and as individuals have articulated new procedures for the results and then builds on the results to explain them in more detail with qualitative research. It is considered
conducting social science research. explanatory because the initial quantitative data results are explained further with the qualitative data. It is
considered sequential because the initial quantitative phase is followed by the qualitative phase. This type of
1. Quantitative Designs design is popular in fields with a strong quantitative orientation (hence the project begins with quantitative
a. Survey Research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a research), but it presents challenges of identifying the quantitative results to further explore and the unequal
population by studying a sample of that population. sample sizes for each phase of the study.
It includes cross-sectional1 and longitudinal studies2 using questionnaires or structured interviews for data c. Exploratory Sequential Mixed Method is the reverse sequence from the explanatory sequential design. In the
collection—with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population (Fowler, 2008). exploratory sequential approach the researcher first begins with a qualitative research phase and explores the
b. Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. The researcher views of participants. The data are then analyzed, and the information used to build into a second, quantitative
assesses this by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then phase. The qualitative phase may be used to build an instrument that best fits the sample under study, to identify
determining how both groups scored on an outcome. Experiments include true experiments, with the appropriate instruments to use in the follow-up quantitative phase, to develop an intervention for an experiment,
random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi experiments1 that use nonrandomized to design an app or website, or to specify variables that need to go into a follow-up quantitative study. Particular
assignments (Keppel, 1991). Included within quasi experiments are single-subject designs. challenges to this design reside in focusing in on the appropriate qualitative findings to use and the sample
selection for both phases of research.
2. Qualitative Designs
a. Narrative Research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which the researcher studies the lives of These basic or core designs then can be used in more complex mixed methods strategies. The core designs can
individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives (Riessman, 2008). This augment an experiment by, for example, collecting qualitative data after the experiment to help explain the quantitative
information is then often retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative chronology. Often, in the end, outcome results.
the narrative combines views from the participant’s life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative The core designs can be used within a case study framework to deductively document cases or to generate cases
narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). for further analysis. These basic designs can inform a theoretical study drawn from social justice or power as an
b. Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from philosophy and psychology in which the overarching perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. The core designs can also
researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants. be used in the different phases of an evaluation procedure that spans from a needs assessment to a test of a program or
This description culminates in the essence of the experiences for several individuals who have all experienced experimental intervention.
the phenomenon. This design has strong philosophical underpinnings and typically involves conducting
interviews (Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994).
c. Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a general, abstract
theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants. This process involves using
multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information
(Charmaz, 2006; Corbin & Strauss, 2007, 2015).
d. Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in which the researcher studies
the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a
prolonged period of time. Data collection often involves observations and interviews.
e. Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in which the researcher
develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals.
Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data
collection procedures over a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2012, 2014).

3. Mixed Methods Designs

Procedures for expanding mixed methods developed such as follows:
• Ways to integrate the quantitative and qualitative data, such as one database, could be used to check the accuracy
(validity) of the other database.
• One database could help explain the other database, and one database could explore different types of questions
than the other database.
• One database could lead to better instruments when instruments are not well-suited for a sample or population.
• One database could build on other databases, and one database could alternate with another database back and
forth during a longitudinal study.
Three Primary Designs found in the social and health sciences today:
C. RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH APPROACHES AS WORLDVIEWS, DESIGNS, AND METHODS
The third major element in the framework is the specific research methods that involve the forms of data collection, The worldviews, the designs, and the methods all contribute to a research approach that tends to be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.
analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for their studies. Quantitative Approach: Postpositivist Worldview, Experimental design, and Pretest and Posttest measures of Attitudes.
In this scenario, the researcher tests a theory by specifying narrow hypotheses and the collection of data to support or refute the
Researchers collect data on an instrument or test (e.g., a set of questions about attitudes toward self esteem) or gather hypotheses. An experimental design is used in which attitudes are assessed both before and after an experimental treatment. The data
are collected on an instrument that measures attitudes, and the information is analyzed using statistical procedures and hypothesis
information on a behavioral checklist (e.g., observation of a worker engaged in a complex skill).
testing.
Qualitative Approach: Constructivist worldview, ethnographic design, and observation of behavior.
On the other end of the continuum, collecting data might involve visiting a research site and observing the behavior of
In this situation, the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon from the views of participants. This means identifying a
individuals without predetermined questions or conducting an interview in which the individual is allowed to talk openly
culture-sharing group and studying how it develops shared patterns of behavior over time (i.e., ethnography). One of the key elements of
about a topic, largely without the use of specific questions. collecting data in this way is to observe participants’ behaviors during their engagement in activities.
Qualitative Approach: Transformative worldview, narrative design, and open-ended interviewing.
The choice of methods turns on whether the intent is to specify the type of information to be collected in advance of the For this study, the inquirer seeks to examine an issue related to oppression of individuals. To study this, stories are collected of individual
study or to allow it to emerge from participants in the project. Also, the type of data analyzed may be numeric oppression using a narrative approach. Individuals are interviewed at some length to determine how they have personally experienced
information gathered on scales of instruments or text information recording and reporting the voice of the participants. oppression.
Mixed methods Approach: Pragmatic worldview, collection of both quantitative and qualitative data sequentially in the design.
Researchers make interpretations of the statistical results, or they interpret the themes or patterns that emerge from The researcher bases the inquiry on the assumption that collecting diverse types of data best provides a more complete understanding of
the data. In some forms of research, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted. a research problem than either quantitative or qualitative data alone. The study begins with a broad survey in order to generalize results
to a population and then, in a second phase, focuses on qualitative, open-ended interviews to collect detailed views from participants to
help explain the initial quantitative survey.
Instrument data may be augmented with open-ended observations, or census data may be followed by in-depth
exploratory interviews. In this case of mixing methods, the researcher makes inferences across both the quantitative and
qualitative databases.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH APPROACH

Given the possibility of qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches, what factors affect a choice of one
approach over another for the design of a proposal? To make this choice, we need to add to worldview, design, and
methods the research problem, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the audience(s) for the report.
FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGN (Creswell, 2003) – Performance data, attitude document data, and – Multiple forms of data
data, observational data, and audiovisual data drawing on all
QUANTITAIVE QUALITATIVE MIXED Methods census data – Text and image analysis possibilities
– Statistical analysis – Statistical and text
POSTPOSITIVISM PRAGMATIC – Statistical interpretation analysis
CONSTRUCTIVISM/TRANSFORMATIVE
– Tests or verifies theories – Positions self – Collects both
– the “scientific method”, – Understanding. Individuals – Consequences of – Identifies variables – Collects participant quantitative and
“science”, empirical science, seek to understand the actions. Knowledge – Relates variables in meanings qualitative data
positivism, postpositivism, world they live in. claims arise out of hypotheses – Focuses on a single – Develops a rationale for
quantitative research – Multiple participant actions, situations, and – Uses standards of reliability phenomenon mixing
– Determination. Examine meanings. Individuals consequences rather and validity – Brings personal values to – Integrates the data at
causes that influence develop subjective than antecedent Observes and measures study different stages
Alternative –
outcomes. meanings of their conditions (as in information numerically. Validates findings Presents visual pictures
Knowledge Practices of – –
– Reductionism. Reduce ideas experiences. postpositivism). Uses unbiased approaches Interprets data of procedures
Claims Researcher – –
into variables that constitute – Social and historical – Problem-centered. – Uses statistics – Creates agenda for change – Employs practices of
hypotheses and questions. construction. Subjective Concern is on “what – Collaborates with both quantitative and
– Empirical observation and meanings are negotiated works” or on participants qualitative research
measurement. Carefully socially and historically applications and
observe objective reality “out through interaction with solutions to problems. – Primarily uses postpositivist – Primarily uses – Primarily uses pragmatic
there”. others. – Pluralistic. Researchers claims (cause-effect, constructivist (multiple claims (problem-
– Theory Verification. Begin – Theory generation. use all approaches to variables, hypotheses, meanings socially centered)
with a theory; collect data to Research aims to develop a understand the problem. measurement, test of constructed) or advocacy/ – Uses strategies
support or refute theory; theory or pattern of – Real-world practice Researcher theories) participatory claims simultaneously or
revise theory. meaning. oriented. “Truth is what Approaches – Uses strategies such as – Uses narratives, sequentially
works at the time”. experiments and surveys. phenomenologies, – Collects both statistical
– Collects predetermined data ethnographies, grounded and textual data
– Experiments. True – Ethnographies. Studies of – Sequential procedures. from instruments that yield theory, case studies.
experiments, quasi- intact cultural groups in – [1] Begin with QUALI to statistical data – Collects open-ended,
experiments, correlational their natural setting over a explore then proceed emerging data
studies, structural equation prolonged period. with QUANTI with large
– To identify factors that – To understand a concept – To capture the best of
models. sample
influence an outcome, the or phenomenon given little quantitative and
– Grounded theory. Multiple – [2] Begin with QUANTI to
utility of an intervention, or to research on it. qualitative approaches
– Surveys. Use of stages of data collection to test theory then proceed
understand the best – Exploratory, to know – To both generalize
questionnaires or structured derive an abstract theory with QUALI to explore a Research predictors of outcomes. variables to examine findings and develop a
interviews for data collection, of a process or action. few cases in detail. Problem – To test a theory or – When topic is new, when detailed view of the
with the intent of generalizing
explanation. topic has not been meaning of a
from a sample to a – Case studies. In-depth – Concurrent procedures.
addressed with a certain phenomenon.
Strategies of population. exploration of an event, Collect both QUALI and
sample or group, or when – To first explore then
injury activity, process, or one or QUANTI data at the
theories do not apply with study variables
more individuals. same time and integrate
a particular sample – To first survey many
information in the
then follow up on a few
– Phenomenological interpretation of the
research. Understanding results.
“lived experiences” or the
“essence” of a – Transformative
phenomenon. procedures. The use of a
theoretical lens to
– Narrative research. Re- provide a framework and
telling of individuals life methods of data
stories. collection that contain
both QUALI and QUANTI
data.

– Predetermined – Emerging methods – Both predetermined and

– Instrument-based and closed- – Open-ended questions emerging methods
ended questions Interview data, – Both open-ended and
observation data, closed- ended questions
THE SIX STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH 1. IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
– You begin a research study by identifying a topic to study-typically an issue or problem that needs to be
When researchers conduct a study, they proceed through a distinct set of steps. Years ago, these steps resolved.
were identified as the "scientific method" of inquiry (Kerlinger, 1972; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). Using a – Identifying a research problem consists of specifying an issue to study, developing a justification for studying it,
"scientific method," researchers do the following: and suggesting the importance of the study for select audiences that will read the report. By specifying a
"problem," you limit the subject matter and focus attention on a specific aspect of study.
• Identify a problem that defines the goal of research – You will state them in introductory sections of a research report and provide a rationale for their importance. In
• Make a prediction that, if confirmed, resolves the problem a formal sense, these problems are part of a larger written section called the "statement of the problem," and
this section includes the topic, the problem, a justification for the problem, and the importance of studying it for
• Gather data relevant to this prediction
specific audiences.
• Analyze and interpret the data to see if it supports the prediction and resolves the question that
initiated the research

Let’s examine Maria’s research to see how she will specify her study’s research problem.
Applied today, these steps provide the foundation for educational research. Although not all studies
include predictions, you engage in these steps whenever you undertake a research study. The process of Maria plans to study school violence and weapon possession in schools. She starts with a problem: escalating weapon
research consists of six steps: possession among students in high school. She needs to justify the problem by providing evidence about the importance
of this problem and documenting how her study will provide insight into the problem.
1. Identifying a research problem (Research Problem) or topic
2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
2. Reviewing the literature (RRL)
3. Specifying a purpose for research (Purpose Statement) – Reviewing the literature means locating summaries, books, journals, and indexed publications on a topic;
4. Collecting data selectively choosing which literature to include in your review; and then summarizing the literature in a
5. Analyzing and interpreting the data written report.
6. Reporting and evaluating research – The skills required for reviewing the literature develop over time and with practice. You can learn how to
locate journal articles and books in an academic library, access computerized databases, choose and evaluate
the quality of research on your topic, and summarize it in a review. Library resources can be overwhelming,
so having a strategy for searching the literature and writing the review is important.

To inform her committee about the latest literature on school violence and to plan her own research, Maria needs to
conduct a literature review. This process will involve becoming familiar with the university library holdings, spending
time reviewing resources and making decisions about what literature to use, and writing a formal summary of the
literature on school violence. She consults the library catalog at her university and plans to search the computerized
databases.

3. SPECIFYING A PURPOSE FOR RESEARCH

If your research problem covers a broad topic of concern, you need to focus it so that you can study it. A focused
restatement of the problem is the purpose statement. This statement conveys the overall objective or intent of your
research. As such, it is the most important statement in your research study. It introduces the entire study, signals the
procedures you will use to collect data, and indicates the types of results you hope to find.

The purpose for research consists of identifying the major intent or objective for a study and narrowing it into specific
research questions or hypotheses. The purpose statement contains the major focus of the study, the participants in the
study, and the location or site of the inquiry. This purpose statement is then narrowed to research questions or
predictions that you plan to answer in your research study.

Maria now needs to write down the purpose of her study and formulate the questions she will ask of the individuals
selected for her study. In draft after draft, she sketches this purpose statement, recognizing that it will provide major
direction for her study and help keep her focused on the primary aim of her study. From this broad purpose, Maria now
needs to narrow her study to specific questions or statements that she would like her participants to answer.
4. COLLECTING DATA 6. REPORTING AND EVALUATING RESEARCH

Evidence helps provide answers to your research questions and hypotheses. To get these answers, you After conducting your research, you will develop a written report and distribute it to select audiences that can
engage in the step of collecting or gathering data. use your information.

Collecting data means identifying and selecting individuals for a study, obtaining their permission to study Reporting research involves deciding on audiences, structuring the report in a format acceptable to these
them, and gathering information by asking people questions or observing their behaviors. Of paramount audiences, and then writing the report in a manner that is sensitive to all readers.
concern in this process is the need to obtain accurate data from individuals and places. Maria thinks about how she will organize her final report to her school committee and to her university graduate committee. Her graduate
committee likely has a structure in mind for her graduate research study, and she needs to consult her faculty adviser about the format
This step will produce a collection of numbers (test scores or frequency of behaviors) or words (responses, that students typically use. She should have a general idea about what the major sections of the study will be, but the contents of the
opinions, or quotes). Once you identify these individuals and places, you write method or procedure specific paragraphs and ideas will take shape as her data analysis and interpretation progress.
sections into your research studies.
Her school report will likely be different from her research report. The school report will be informative and concise, will offer
recommendations, and will include minimal discussions about methods and procedures. Whatever the audience and structure for her
These sections offer detailed, technical discussions about the mechanics and administration of data report, it must be respectful of the audience and be devoid of discriminatory language.
collection. Many decisions, however, go into creating a good data collection procedure.
Evaluating research involves assessing the quality of a study using standards advanced by individuals.
At this point in the research process, Maria needs to think about where she will conduct her study of school violence and
weapon possession, who will participate in the study, how she will obtain permission to study them, what data she will Write a "statement of the problem" section for a research study you would like to conduct. Identify the topic, the
collect, and how she will gather the data. She needs to decide whether she will have students fill out forms or talk to them research problem, justification for the problem, the deficiencies in knowledge about the problem, and the
directly to gather data to answer her research questions. Whichever course she chooses, she will need permission from audience that will benefit from studying the problem.
the high school students and, because the students are minors, from their parents.
Practice conducting a literature review using the educational topic of your choice. Go through the five steps in
conducting a literature review, ending with a brief literature review of one or two articles: (a) identify key terms
to use in your search for literature; (b) locate literature about a topic by consulting several types of materials and
5. ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING THE DATA databases, including those available at an academic library and on the Internet; (c) critically evaluate and select
During or immediately after data collection, you need to make sense of the information supplied by individuals in the the literature for your review; (d) organize the literature you have selected by abstracting or taking notes on the
study. Analysis consists of "taking the data apart" to determine individual responses and then "putting it together" to literature and developing a visual diagram of it; and (e) write a review that reports summaries of the literature.
summarize it.
For the educational project you have chosen to design in earlier chapters, write a quantitative purpose statement
Analyzing and interpreting the data involves drawing conclusions about it; representing it in tables, figures, and pictures and research hypotheses. In addition, turn the study into a qualitative project and write a qualitative purpose
to summarize it; and explaining the conclusions in words to provide answers to your research questions. You report statement and central question.
analysis and interpretation in sections of a research report usually titled "Results," "Findings," or "Discussion."

If Maria collects information on a written questionnaire from students across the school district, she will need to enter the questionnaire
responses into a computer program, choose a statistical procedure, conduct the analyses, report the results in tables, and draw
conclusions about (or interpret) whether the data confirm or disconfirm her expected trends or predictions. If she conducts face-to-face
interviews, she will collect audiotapes of students talking about weapon possession at school and transcribe these tapes to obtain a written
record. With her transcript, she will engage in making sense of student comments by selecting specific sentences and paragraphs and by
identifying themes of information. From these themes, she will interpret the meaning of students comments in light of her own personal
stance and the suggestions found in past studies.
RESEARCH ETHICS RESEARCH (excerpt from PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF THE PHILIPPINES, CODE OF ETHICS FOR PHILIPPINE
PSYCHOLOGISTS)
APA ethics: The general principles
A. Rights and Dignity of Participants
The APA ethics are based on five general principles:
1. In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard the dignity, and protect and promote the welfare of research
• Principle A: Beneficence and non-maleficence participants.
Psychologists seek to benefit and avoid harm to those whom they engage with professionally. This includes 2. Before beginning any research work in a community not our own or not familiar to us, we obtain essential
the animals used in research. Psychologists should both be aware of and guard against those factors which information about their mores, culture, social structure, customs, and traditions.
3. We respect and abide by their cultural expectations, provided that this does not contravene any of the ethical
may result in harm to others. The list of factors is long and includes financial, social and institutional
principles of this Code of Ethics.
considerations.
4. We respect the rights of research participants should they wish to discontinue their participation at any time.
We are responsive all throughout the research to participants’ nonverbal indications of a desire to withdraw
• Principle B: Fidelity and responsibility from participation, especially if the person has difficulty with verbal communication, is a young child, or is
Psychologists are in relationships of trust in their professional activities. They are thus required to take culturally unlikely to communicate.
responsibility for their actions, adhere to professional standards of conduct, and make clear exactly their 5. We do not contribute nor engage in research which contravenes international humanitarian law, such as
role and obligations in all aspects of their professional activities. In relation to research and practice, development of methods intended to torture persons, development of prohibited weapons, or destruction of
psychologists are not merely concerned with their own personal activities but with the ethical conduct of the environment.
their colleagues (widely defined). It is worthwhile quoting word for word one aspect of the professional 6. It is our duty to ask participants about any factors that could bring forth potential harm, such as pre-existing
fidelity ethic: ‘Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no medical conditions, and to detect, remove, or correct any foreseeable undesirable consequences prior to
compensation or personal advantage.’ research proper.
7. To ensure that participants’ rights are protected, we seek independent and sufficient ethical review of the
possible risks our research may pose to them.
• Principle C: Integrity – accuracy, honesty, truthfulness
Psychologists are expected to manifest integrity in all aspects of their professional work. One possible B. Informed Consent to Research
exception to this is circumstances in which the ratio of benefits to harm of using deception is large.
Nevertheless, it remains the duty of psychologists even in these circumstances to seriously assess the 1. We do not just ask participants to sign in the consent form; we recognize that informed consent happens due
possible harmful consequences of the deception including the ensuing distrust. The psychologist has a duty to the willingness of the participants to work collaboratively with us.
to correct these harmful consequences. 2. We make sure that the consent form is translated in language or dialect that the participants understand. We
will take reasonable measures to guarantee that the information was understood.
3. When we conduct research with persons below 18 years of age, we obtain informed assent from them and
• Principle D: Justice – equality of access to the benefits of psychology informed consent from their parents or legal guardian.
This means that psychologists exercise careful judgement and take care to enable all people to experience 4. When we conduct research with adult participants who have difficulties in comprehension or communication,
just and fair psychological practices. Psychologists should be aware of the nature of their biases (potential we obtain informed consent from adult family members of the participants and approval from independent
and actual). They should not engage in, or condone, unjust practices and need to be aware of the ways in advisors.
which injustice may manifest itself. 5. When we conduct research with detained persons, we pay attention to special circumstances which could
affect the latter’s ability to give informed consent.
• Principle E: Respect for people’s rights and dignity 6. When obtaining informed consent as required in Section III.J. of this Code of Ethics, it is our duty to inform
According to the American Psychological Association, individuals have the rights of privacy, confidentiality research participants about:
a. the purpose of research, expected duration, and procedures;
and self-determination. Consequently, psychologists need to be aware of the vulnerabilities of some
b. mutual responsibilities;
individuals that make it difficult for them to make autonomous decisions. Children are an obvious example.
c. right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun;
The principle also requires psychologists to be aware of and respect differences among cultures, individuals
d. the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;
and roles. Age, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity, language, national origin, race, religion,
e. reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as
sexual orientation and socio-economic status are among these differences. potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects;
f. how to rescind consent if desired;
g. any prospective research benefits;
h. protections and limits of confidentiality and/or anonymity;
i. incentives for participation; and,
j. whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’ rights.
7. We shall provide an opportunity for prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers.
8. When conducting intervention research using experimental treatments, it is our duty to clarify to
participants at the beginning of research the following:
a. experimental nature of the treatment
 b. services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate; G. Deception in Research
c. means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made;
d. available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or 1. We refrain from conducting research involving deception, except:
wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and, a. when we have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s significant
e. compensation for or monetary costs of participating, and if appropriate, including whether prospective scientific, educational, medical, or applied value; and,
reimbursement from the participant or a third-party payor will be sought. b. when effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not possible.
9. In longitudinal research, we may need to obtain informed consent on more than one occasion. 2. We do not deceive prospective research participants about our study that is reasonably expected to
interfere their decision to give informed consent. We ensure that level of risk, discomfort, or
C. Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research inconvenience that could cause physical pain or severe emotional distress is not withheld from the
participants.
1. It is our duty to obtain informed consent from research participants before recording their voices or 3. It is our duty to explain any deception as an integral feature of design and conduct of an experiment to
images for data collection, except when: those who participated in research as soon as possible, preferably at the end of their participation but not
a. the research consists only of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated that later than the end of data gathering.
the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm; and,
b. the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during H. Debriefing
debriefing.
1. We debrief by informing the participants that they have contributed to the body of knowledge and we
D. Research Participation of Client, Students and Subordinates make sure that they have also learned from their participation.
2. We give participants an opportunity to obtain the nature, results, and conclusions of the research. We
1. When we conduct research with our clients, students or subordinates, we do not coerce them to also take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions participants have about our research, especially
participate, rather, we inform them about their right not to participate and we do not reprimand or when the participants were led to believe that the research has a different purpose.
penalize them for doing so. 3. When participants’ trust may have been lost due to incomplete disclosure or temporarily leading
2. When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, we inform our participants to believe that the research had a different purpose, we seek to re-establish trust and assure
clients, students or subordinates about equitable alternative activities that could fulfill their educational them that the research procedures were carefully structured and necessary for scientifically valid
or employment goals. findings.
4. If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, we take reasonable
E. Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research
measures to reduce the risk of harm.
1. We may dispense informed consent only on the following conditions: 5. When we become aware that our research procedures have harmed a participant, we act to correct and
a. when we believe that the research would not distress or create harm to participants or general minimize the harm.
welfare or when our study involves: 6. If after debriefing, the participants decided to withdraw their data, we shall respect and grant their
i. the study or normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods request. The participants have the right to appeal that their own data, including recordings, be destroyed.
conducted in educational settings;
I. Observational Research
ii. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which
disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or We respect the privacy and psychological well-being of persons studied based on observational research. This
damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected; method is acceptable only when those being observed would expect to be observed by strangers.
iii. the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational
settings which would not affect the participants’ employability, and confidentiality is J. Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research
protected; or,
iv. when it is mandated by law or is an institutional regulation. 1. We do not use animals in research, except when there is a sufficient reason to say that it is the only way
to:
F. Offering Inducements for Research Participation a. further increase understanding of the structures and processes underlying human or animal
behavior;
1. We may fairly compensate participants for the use of their time, energy, and knowledge, unless such b. increase understanding of the specific specie used in the study; or
compensation is refused in advance. c. eventually augment benefits to the health and welfare of humans or other animals.
2. We make reasonable efforts not to offer undue, excessive or, inappropriate reward, financial or other 2. We comply with current laws, regulations and professional standards when we acquire, care for, use, and
inducements for research participation, which could likely pressure or coerce participation. dispose animals used in research.
3. When we offer psychological and professional services as an incentive for research participation, it is our 3. We take reasonable steps to ensure that animals used in research are treated humanely and are not
duty to clarify the nature of the services, including the risks, obligations and limitations. exposed to unnecessary discomfort, pain, or disruption. If possible, a psychologist trained in research
methods and experience in care of laboratory animals shall supervise all procedures in researches of this
kind.
 4. We make sure that all individuals under our supervision have received clear instructions and guidelines in N. Duplicate Publication of Data
research methods and in care, maintenance, and handling of animals or specific species being used, to
the extent that is appropriate to their role. We do not publish data that have been previously published and claim them as original data. However, this does
5. We use a procedure causing pain, stress, and privation to animals only when: not prohibit republishing of data as long as proper acknowledgement is clearly stated.
a. an alternative procedure is unavailable;
O. Sharing Research Data for Verification
b. the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value; and,
c. reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. 1. It is our duty to share and not to withhold our data to other competent professionals, who seek to verify
6. We perform surgical procedures with appropriate anesthesia and we follow techniques to avoid infection and reanalyze the research results and substantive claims of our publication, provided that:
and minimize the pain during and after surgery. i. the latter obtain prior written agreement for the use of data;
7. Only when it is appropriate that an animal’s life be terminated, then we proceed rapidly, with an effort to ii. the latter intend to use the data solely for the purpose declared;
minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures. iii. the latter will hold responsibility for costs associated with the release of data; and,
iv. confidentiality of participants can be protected.
K. Reporting Research Results
2. Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude such release, then the latter should seek
1. Whenever feasible and appropriate, we consult with groups, organizations, or communities being studied permission from the concerned institution, organization or agency.
the findings of our research so as to increase the accuracy of interpretation and to minimize the risk of
P. Reviewers
misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse.
2. We are cautious when reporting results of our research regarding vulnerable groups or communities and 1. When we review material submitted for presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal review,
we ensure that the results will not be misinterpreted or misused in the development of social policy, we respect the confidentiality and the proprietary rights of those who submitted it.
attitude, and practices.
3. In research involving children, we are cautious when discussing the results with parents, legal guardians, Q. Limitations of the Study
or teachers and we make sure that there is no misinterpretation or misunderstanding.
1. We acknowledge the limitations of our knowledge, methods, findings, interventions, interpretations, and
4. We do not fabricate data.
conclusions.
5. If we discover significant errors in our published data, we act quickly to correct such errors in a
2. In cases wherein our research touches on social policies and structures of communities which we do not
correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means. belong, we thoroughly discuss the limits of our data with respect to their social policy.
3. We do not conceal disconfirming evidence about our findings and views and we acknowledge alternative
L. Plagiarism
hypotheses and explanations.
We do not present any portions of other’s work or data as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally.

M. Publication Credit

1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we have actually done and credit others (including
students and research assistants) for work they have actually performed or to which they have
substantially contributed.
2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-authorship accurately reflect the relative scientific or
professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their relative status. Mere possession
of an institutional position, such as department chair or head of the research unit, does not justify
authorship credit. Minor contributions to the research or to the writing for publications must be
acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or an introductory statement.
3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication that is substantially based on our student’s thesis or
dissertation if we do not have substantial contributions to the research beyond our regular duties as
thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor. As faculty advisors, we should discuss with students, publication
credit at the outset and throughout the research and publication process based on our relative
contributions to the research work.
4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or substantially based on the student’s thesis or
dissertation, we shall give appropriate publication credit to the student based on the student’s
contribution relative to the other authors. When the article is mainly based on the student’s thesis or
dissertation, we credit the student with primary authorship.
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ❖ Types of Literature
▪ Priority of the Literature
1. Broad syntheses of the literature
➢ INTRODUCTION 2. Journal articles in respected scientific journals
Besides selecting a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approach, a first step in conducting research is to identify a topic 3. Books
and review the literature written about it. 4. Recent conference papers
5. Web

➢ THE RESEARCH TOPIC ▪ Overall Evaluation Quality

Before considering what literature to use in a project, identify a topic to study and reflect on whether it is practical and useful to ❖ Abstracting the Literature
undertake the study. The topic becomes the central idea to learn about or to explore in a study. When reviewing the literature, it is helpful to develop abstracts of the studies to later include in the review.
Abstract
Topic in a literature review is a brief review of the literature (typically in a short paragraph) summarizing major elements to enable a reader to
is the subject or subject matter of a proposed study that a researcher identifies early in the preparation of a study. understand the basic features of the article.
▪ Components of an Abstract
❖ A Draft Title 1. Problem being addressed
There are several ways that researchers gain some insight into their topics when they initially plan their research (we 2. Central purpose or focus
3. Brief information, sample, population, subjects
assume that the topic is chosen by the researcher and not by an adviser or committee member). One way is to draft a brief
4. Key results that relate to the proposed study
working title to the study. 5. Technical and methodological flaws
❖ A Significant Topic ▪ Theoretical, Conceptual, and Methodological Abstracts
whether the topic can and should be researched. From non-empirical studies.
A topic can be researched if a researcher has participants willing to serve in the study. A topic should be researched if it adds to the pool of 1. Problem addressed
research knowledge. 2. Central theme
3. Major conclusions
➢ THE PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION OF A LITERATURE REVIEW ❖ A Literature Map
Intent or purpose of a literature review and plan for its organization One of the first tasks for a researcher working with a new topic is to organize the literature
Literature Map
❖ Purpose of a Literature Review is a visual picture (or figure) of the research literature on a topic that illustrates how the researcher’s study contributes to the literature.
Shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related 1. Topic
Provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study 2. Organize into broad subtopics
3. Labels the nature of the studies in the box
❖ The Organization of the Literature Review 4. References to major citations in the box
▪ General Forms 5. Include several levels
6. Organize literature into a diagram
- In one model, literature becomes additional information in an introduction (qualitative)
7. Considered the branches of the figure
- Another, literature form a separate chapter in the project 20-60 pages. (quantitative)
8. Written a narrative description
▪ A Qualitative Structure
➢ STYLE MANUAL USE
1. Introduction – literature provides a useful rationale for the problem or issue Style Manuals
2. Separate section “Literature Review” – strong quantitative orientation provide guidelines for creating a scholarly style of a manuscript, such as a consistent format for citing references, creating headings, presenting
3. Ends the study – basis for comparing and contrasting findings of qualitative studies tables and figures, and using nondiscriminatory and gender-free language.
▪ A Quantitative Structure 1. Publication Manual of APA is the most popular style manual
2. Chicago Manual of Style, 17th Edition
1. Separate section “Related Literature” – can introduce a theory
2. Uses literature deductively as a framework for research questions or hypothesis a. In-text Citations – state only the first author name, and et al. for multiple authors.
a. introduction b. End-of-text References – Location is no longer needed and can be abbreviated
c. Headings – Level 1 (title), Level 2 (major sections), Level 3-5 (subdivide major content)
b. topic 1 (independent variable)
d. Inclusive and Bias-free language – use singular “they”
c. topic 2 (dependent variable) e. Footnotes – not frequently used
d. topic 3 (studies that address both the variable
➢ THE DEFINITION OF TERMS
e. summary Another topic related to reviewing the literature is the identification and definition of terms that readers will need to understand a proposed research
▪ A Mixed Methods Structure project
1. Uses either a qualitative or quantitative approach to the literature Definition of Terms
2. For sequential approach, if begins with quanti likely to include a substantial literature review is a section found in a research proposal that defines terms that readers may not understand.
➢ STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW ❖ General Guidelines
Operational Definitions
1. Identifying keywords
Conceptual Definitions
2. Search databases, major libraries ❖ Special Terms
3. Try to locate 50 reports related to your topic
5. Skim and collect those central to topic
6. Design a literature map
7. Draft summaries of the most relevant articles
8. Assemble the literature review
➢ SEARCHING THE LITERATURE
– literature search requires knowing databases to search, prioritizing the types of literature available, assessing the quality of the literature

❖ Computer Databases/ Computer Databases

are now available in libraries, and they provide quick access to thousands of journals, conference papers, and materials. (PubMed, Google
Scholar, ResearchGate, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis online)
What is a Literature Review? Online Search Modifiers

• A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. 1. Source Type - Examine the source thoroughly. Is it a book, a website article, a research paper, or a news
• It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in report?
the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic. 2. Up-to-date - Check the publication date. Is the information current, or has it recently been revised?
• A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates to give 3. Authorship - Is the author an expert in the field about which they are writing? Is the publisher reliable and
a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject. well-known?
4. URL - Does the website end in ".edu," or ".org," indicating that it belongs to an educational institution, or a
5 KEY STEPS non-profit organization?

• Search for relevant literature Reading Techniques

• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps 1. Skimming - Skim reading allows you to process a large amount of information quickly. Read the first
• Outline the structure sentence for each paragraph to get an overall understanding of what your reference is about.
• Write your literature review 2. Scanning - Scanning allows you to read and spot specific information you need. You can look for keywords
related to your topic.
Purpose of the Literature Review

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your
topic.

Steps

Step 1 – Search for relevant literature

Step 2 – Evaluate and select sources

Step 3 – Identify themes, debates, and gaps

Step 4 – Outline your literature review’s structure

1. Chronological - The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you
choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order
2. Thematic - If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into
subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
3. Methodological - If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research
methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches.
4. THEORETICAL - A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to
discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

Step 5 – Write your literature review

1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion
 have two types: nominal and ordinal. Nominal scales use categories that a participant would check, such as level of
Chapter 3 THE USE OF THEORY education. An ordinal scale represents categories for the participant to check but provides the categories as a rank order.
➢ INTRODUCTION
Continuous scales
➢ THE VARIED USE OF THEORY
in quantitative research are of two types: interval and ratio scales. An interval or ratio scale contains a continuous scale. The
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research MIXED METHODS
scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree represents a common example of a type of continuous scale.
Testing hypothesis derived from Theory as a study outcome such as in Both theory testing and generation.
theories grounded theory or, theories provide a
❖ Testing Causal Claims in Quantitative Research
lens that shapes the focus and Shapes the quantitative instrument and
questions asked such as in qualitative interview questions.
Causality
ethnographies or social justice
research. means in quantitative theory that one variable X causes variable Y. This is especially true when X precedes Y in time, or in
temporal order.

➢ QUANTITATIVE THEORY USE Temporal Order

❖ Definition of a Theory in Quantitative Research means that one variable precedes another in time. Because of this time ordering, one variable affects or predicts another
Theory in Quantitative research variable. Temporal order also means that quantitative researchers think about variables in an order from left to right.
is an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed into propositions, or hypotheses, and specifying the relationships
among variables (typically in terms of magnitude or direction). They also predict the outcomes of a study. Theoretical standpoint
in qualitative research provides an overall orienting lens for study questions about gender, class, and race (or other issues
Theories vary in their level of scope: of marginalized groups). This lens becomes a transformative perspective to bring about change, lift the voices of
1. Micro-Level – explanations limited to small slices of time, space, or numbers of people/ underrepresented groups, and uncover largely hidden assumptions of individuals.
2. Meso-Level – link between micro- and macro- levels
3. Macro-Level – explain larger aggregates Theoretical end point
means that the qualitative study ends with a theoretical model, a theory, or a conceptual model.
❖ Variables in Quantitative Research
Variable
❖ Stating Theories in Quantitative Research
refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed and varies ❖ Placement of Quantitative Theories
among the people or organization being studied. A variable typically will vary in two or more categories or on a continuum ❖ Writing a Quantitative Theories
of scores, and it can be measured. ❖ Writing a Quantitative Theoretical Perspective
Independent Variables
influence or affect outcomes in studies. They are “independent” because they are distinct from the outcome in a study. ➢ THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
Dependent Variables
are variables that depend on the independent variables. They are the outcomes or results influenced by the independent ➢ QUALITATIVE THEORY USE
variables. ❖ Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research
Predictor Variables (also called antecedent variables) ❖ Locating The Theory in Qualitative Research
are variables that predict an outcome of interest in survey method studies. Predictor variables are like IV in that they are
hypothesized to affect outcomes in a study. ➢ MIXED METHODS THEORY USE
Outcome Variables (also called criterion or response variables) ❖ Types of Mixed Methods Theory Use
are considered outcomes or results of predictor variables in survey method studies. They share the same properties as DV.
Discipline-based theory
Intervening or mediating Variables/ Extraneous Variables is a theory drawn from the social, behavioral, or health science literature and is used in a mixed methods study.
stand between the IV and DV, and they transmit the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable (for a
review, see MacKinnon et al., 2007). Social justice theory
Moderating Variables is a theory used in qualitative research, such as feminist research, racial or ethnic research, disability research, lifestyle
are variables in quantitative research that moderate the effect of IV in a study. They are variables created by the researcher research, and the like. The theory advances a need to correct an injustice and to bring about change.
who takes one independent variable times another (typically a demographic variable) to construct a new independent
variable. ❖ Importance of a Theory
❖ Distinctions Between a Theory and a Worldview
Confounding Variable
❖ A Theoretically Driven Mixed Methods Study
refers to a “third variable” that is both related to the independent (or predictor) variable and to the dependent (or
outcome) variable. ❖ What Theory Informs
a. Theory provides a framework for organizing and reporting the quantitative and qualitative data
b. Theory brings together separate investigations or studies and reports common concepts or ideas
Hypothesis
is a prediction about a specific event or relationship between variables. c. Theory develops a common understanding among research team members, stakeholders, and funder
of research about the underlying framework for a study
Scale of measurement
d. Theory provides a prediction for what the researcher hopes to learn
in quantitative research would be the response options available to participants on instruments or collected by the
researcher observing participants. e. Theory links concepts and ideas, often in a temporal order
f. Theory provides a visual model for understanding the overall direction of a study
Categorical scales
CHAPTER 4 WRITING STRATEGIES AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Writing the Proposal

➢ INTRODUCTION Maxwell’s (2013) list of the core arguments that need to be advanced in any proposal.
➢ WRITING THE PROPOSAL 1. What do readers need to better understand your topic?
❖ Topics Presented in a Proposal 2. What do readers know about your topic?
❖ Qualitative Proposal 3. What do you propose to study?
❖ A Quantitative Proposal 4. What is the setting and who are the people you will study?
❖ A Mixed Methods Proposal 5. What methods do you plan to use to collect data?
❖ Designing the Sections of a Proposal 6. How will you analyze the data?
7. How will you validate your findings?
➢ WRITING STRATEGIES 8. What ethical issues will your study present?
9. What do preliminary results show about the feasibility and value of the proposed study?
❖ The Process
▪ Early in the process of research, write ideas down rather than talk about them. A Qualitative Constructivist or Interpretivist Format
▪ Work through several drafts of a proposal rather than trying to polish the first draft. Introduction
Statement of the Problem (existing literature, deficiencies, and relevance of study for audiences)
❖ The Habit of Writing Purpose of the Study
The Research Questions
Habit of Writing
Philosophical Assumptions of Worldview and Theory
in scholarly research means writing regularly and continuously rather than in binges or in-and-off times.
Procedures
❖ Clear and Concise Writing Qualitative Design
Role of the Researcher
Use consistent terms throughout the proposal. Data Collection Procedures
Data Analysis Procedures
Four types of narrative thoughts
Proposed Narrative Structure for Findings
1. Umbrella thoughts: The general or core ideas one is trying to get across Strategies for Validation
Anticipated Ethical Issues
2. Big thoughts: Specific ideas or images reinforce, clarify, or elaborate umbrella thoughts Preliminary Pilot Findings (if available)
3. Little thoughts: ideas or images whose chief function is to reinforce big thoughts
Expected Impact and Significance of Study
References
4. Attention or interest thoughts: Ideas to keep the reader on track, organize ideas, and keep an individual’s attention Appendixes (Questions and Protocol, Observational forms, timeline for the study, proposed budget, summary of the
proposed content of each chapter in the final study)
❖ Coherence
A Qualitative Participatory or Social Justice Format
Coherence Introduction
in writing means that ideas tie together and logically flow from one sentence to another and from one paragraph to Statement of the Problem
another. The Social Justice Theory
Purpose of the Study
Hook-And-Eye Exercise The Research Questions
Is a useful exercise in writing coherently by connecting thoughts from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph. Philosophical Assumptions or Worldview and Theory
The researcher examines their writing, circles key ideas in each sentence, and then connects the sentences (or paragraphs) Procedures
with a line. A good connection indicates coherence; a difficult connection shows a lack of coherence. Qualitative Design
Role of the Researcher
❖ Voice, Tense, and “Fat” Data Collection Procedures (collaborative approaches use with participants)
Use the active voice as much as possible Data Analysis Procedures
If the subject acts, the voice is active. If the subject is acted on, the voice if passive. Strategies for Validation
Proposed Narrative Structure for Findings
Fat Anticipated Ethical Issues
In writing refers to words added to prose unnecessary to convey the intended meaning. Preliminary Pilot Findings (if available)
▪ Use present tense in the introduction Significance of the Study and Transformative Changes Likely to Occur
▪ Use past tense or the present perfect tense to review the literature and report results of past studies References
▪ Use the present tense to discuss the results and to present the conclusions Appendixes
A Quantitative Format ETHICAL ISSUES

Introduction and Literature Review ❖ Prior to Beginning the Study

Statement of the Problem ▪ Examine Codes of Ethics
Purpose of the Study
Code of ethics
Research Questions or Hypothesis
is the ethical rules and principles drafted by professional associations that govern scholarly research in the
Method disciplines.
Population, Sample, Participants, Recruitment of Participants
Type of Research Design ▪ Apply to the Institutional Review Board
Procedure
Data Analysis Procedures Institutional Review Board
is a committee on a college or university campus that reviews research to determine to what extent the
Preliminary Studies or Pilot Tests
research could place participants at risk during the study. Researchers file applications with the IRB for project
Appendixes: Instruments and Materials, Timeline, Proposed Budget, Outline of Proposed Chapters
approval.

A Mixed Methods Format Informed Consent Forms

Introduction are those that participants sign before they engage in research. This form acknowledges participants’ rights for
The Research Problem protection during data collection.
The Purpose of the Study Aim (intent of collecting and combining quantitative and qualitative data)
▪ Obtain Necessary Permissions
The Research Questions and Hypotheses (mixed methods integration questions)
▪ Select a Site with No Vested Interests
Philosophical Assumptions or Worldview and Theory ▪ Negotiate Authorship for Publication
Literature Review
Methods ❖ Beginning the Study
Identity a Beneficial Problem
A Definition of Mixed Methods Research and Rationale for Using it Disclose the Purpose of the Study
The Type of Mixed Methods Design, Its Definition and Example Studies using it Do Not Pressure Participants to Sign Consent Forms
A Diagram of the Design Respect Norms and Charters of Indigenous Cultures
Assess the Burden of the Research on Participants
Validity Challenges in the Design
Quantitative Data Collection ❖ Collecting the Data
Quantitative Data Analysis Respect the Site, and Disrupt as Little as Possible
Make Sure That All Participants Receive the Benefits
Qualitative Data Collection Collaborate With Participants
Qualitative Data Analysis Avoid Deceptive Practices
An Integration Statement Respect Potential Power Imbalances
Avoid Exploitation of Participants
A Sample Joint Display Template
Anticipated Insights or Metainferences ❖ Analyzing the Data
Researcher’s Resources and Skills to Conduct Mixed Methods Research Avoid Taking Sides
Avoid Disclosing Only Positive Results
Potential Ethical Issues Respect the Privacy of Participants
References
Appendixes ❖ Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data
Provide and Accurate Account of Information
Do Not Plagiarize
Avoid Disclosing Harmful Information
Communicate in Clear Language
Share Data with Others
Keep Raw Data and Other Materials
Do Not Duplicate or Piecemeal Publlications
Complete Proof of Compliance and Lack of Conflict of Interest
Understand Who Owns the Data
 CHAPTER: RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES____________________________________ Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design:
• Quantitative Research Questions
Pose questions about the relationships among variables in the study. • Report (or reflect) the stories (e.g., narrative research)
• Describe the essence of the experience (e.g., phenomenology)
• Qualitative Hypothesis
Predictions the researcher makes about the expected relationships among variables
• Discover or generate a theory (e.g., grounded theory)
• Seek to understand a culture sharing group (e.g., ethnography)
Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses • Explore a process of a case (e.g., case study)

• Testing hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about a population
• Describe the themes (e.g., descriptive analysis)
from a study sample. Writing qualitative questions:
Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses
• Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study.
• State variables in research questions or hypotheses. The researcher may compare groups on an independent • Use open-ended questions
variable to see its impact on a dependent variable. The investigator may relate one or more predictor variables to • Specify the participants and the research site for the study
one of more outcome variables.
• Include a theory. The researcher adapts a theory (often from the literature) to fit a specific study. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES___________________________________________
• Research questions can be descriptive questions where the intent is to describe a single variable. Alternatively,
the research questions can state relationship questions among variables. • Mixed methods questions adresses what the researcher hopes to learn with the combination (integration) of the
quantitative and qualitative data.
• Create a directional alternative hypothesis.
• A null hypothesis makes a prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no significant difference Writing questions into a mixed methods study:
exists between groups on a variable.
• An alternative hypothesis makes a prediction about a significant relationship between variables. • If the study begins with a quantitative phase, the investigator might introduce hypotheses. Later in the study,
• Use directional words such as affect, influence, predict, impact, determine, cause, and relate. when the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative research questions appear.
• Include a mixed methods research question that directly addresses what the researcher hopes to learn from
• Alternatively, a researcher could relate variables rather than assess only one. This type would be an inferential combining or integrating the quantitative and qualitative strands of the research.
research question. Researchers use inferential statistics to analyze the relationship (e.g.. correlation analysis) and • Consider the placement of the questions in a mixed methods study. Often, they will follow immediately the
draws inferences about a population based on the sample. purpose of the study or a study aim and serve to narrow the purpose or aim to be answered in the study. • Some
attention should be given to the order of the research questions and hypotheses
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTION
SUMMARY
Research questions assume two forms:

1. CENTRAL QUESTION • Quantitative researchers lead with research questions and formal hypotheses. These forms include variables that
The major open-ended question being asked about the central phenomenon b interviewing participants, are described, related, or compared with the independent/predictor and dependent/outcome variables. These
observing settings, or reviewing documents. questions or hypotheses include wording such as relationship, predictions, comparison, correlation, or
determinants.
2. SUB-QUESTIONS • Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several sub-questions. They begin the questions with
It narrow the central question by dividing the phenomenon into sub topics focused on learning more about the words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore, understand, or discover. They pose broad,
central phenomenon general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus initially on one central
phenomenon of interest.
Writing qualitative questions:
• The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research. Sub-questions narrow the central
I. Ask one or two central research questions. “What is the broadest question that I can ask in my study?” question and sub-divide it into specific topics for study.
II. Ask no more than five to seven sub questions in addition to your central question(s). • We encourage mixed methods researchers to write quantitative, qualitative, and a mixed methods question into
III. Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging design. their studies. By adding a mixed methods question, the researcher conveys the importance of integrating or
combining the quantitative and qualitative elements.
• An ideal format would be to write three types of questions into separate sections, such as the quantitative
questions or hypotheses, the qualitative questions, and the mixed methods question.
 CHAPTER: QUANTITTAIVE METHODS TYPES OF SELECTION BIAS
Bias due to factors related to the study’s participants, such as the choice of population or sampling and
Survey Designs recruitment methods.
Provides a quantitative description of trends, attitudes, and opinions of a population, or tests for associations among
variables of a population, by studying a sample of that population.
• Selection Bias is a form of systematic error. There are several potential sources of selection bias that can affect
SURVEY DESIGNS ANSWER THREE TYPES OF QUESTIONS: the study, either during the recruitment of participants or in the process of ensuring they remain in the study.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS QUESTIONS ABOUT RELATIONSHIP QUESTIONS ABOUT PREDICTIVE
BETWEEN VARIABLES RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN 1. Sampling Bias
VARIABLES OVER TIME Occurs when some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others
e.g., What percentage of company e.g., Is there an association e.g., Does Time 1 hiring of new
employees support hiring women in between the number of women in women executives predict greater 2. Survivorship Bias
leadership positions? executive roles and satisfaction Time 2 company satisfaction? Successful observations or people are more likely to be represented in the sample than unsuccessful ones
among employees?
3. Attrition Bias
Occurs when participants who drop out of the study systematically differ from the ones who remain.
I. THE PURPOSE
• The primary purpose is to answer a question (or questions) about variables of interest. 4. Non-response bias
E.g., The primary purpose of this survey is to empirically evaluate whether the number of overtime hours People who refuse to participate or drop out systematically differ from those who take part.
worked predicts higher subsequent burnout symptoms in a sample of emergency room nurses.
5. Volunteer Bias
II. RATIONALE FOR USING THE SURVEY METHODS People with specific characteristics are more likely to participate than others.
• Indicate why a survey methods is the preferred type of approach for this study.
6. Undercoverage bias
• Advantages of survey designs:
Some members of a population are inadequately represented in the sample
1. Economy of the design
2. Rapid turnaround in data collection SAMPLING DESIGN
3. Constraints that preclude you from using other designs
Provides a quantitative description of trends, attitudes, and opinions of a population, or tests for
associations among variables of a population, by studying a sample of that population
III. TYPE OF SURVEY METHOD
• Cross-sectional – data are collected at one point in time Types of Sampling
• Longitudinal – data are collected over time
1. Random sample Ideal Each individual in the population has an equal probability of being
IV. SPECIFY THE FORM OF DATA COLLECCTION selected (a systematic or probabilistic sample).
• Questionnaire – List of questions is distributed where respondents fill it out themselves. 2. Systematic Sample Alternative Can have precision - equivalent random sampling (Fowler, 2014).
• Interview – Researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses.
In this approach, you choose a random start on a list and select every X - numbered person on
the list.
V. THE POPULATION AND SAMPLE 3. Nonprobability Sample - Aka convenience sample Less desirable, but often used. Respondents
Survey designs often rely on drawing a sample of participants from a broader population are chosen based on their convenience and availability.
• Population – all people you aim to make inference about (e.g., all nurses across the world)
SAMPLING DESIGN
• Sample – (sub) group of participants examined in the survey study (e.g., nurses drawn from five hospitals)
1. Population Stratification - Stratification means that specific characteristics of individuals (e.g.,
• Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalized to the whole population. That gender ---females and males) are represented in the sample and the sample reflects the true
means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to draw conclusions about. proportion in the population of individuals with certain characteristics.
• The larger and more representative your sample, the more valid your conclusions. Beware of 2. Sample Size determination - In survey research, investigators sometimes choose a sample size
various types of sampling bias as you design your sample, particularly self-selection bias, based on selecting a fraction of the population (say, 10%) or selecting a sample size typically
nonresponse bias, under coverage bias, and survivorship bias. based on past studies.
3. Power Analysis - This enables you to detect a significant association between variables of
interest by estimating a target sample size. e.g. G*Power
VI. INSTRUMENTATION (Designing a survey) D. The phrasing of the questions
• Instruments are devices for collecting measures of variables. • In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the questions to
E.g., A questionnaire can be an instrument for collecting measures of your target variable of interest such as your target population, keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic. Avoid jargon or industry-
perceived stress. specific terminology.
• Measure commonly refers to some characteristics of study participants. • Survey questions are at risk for biases like social desirability bias, the Hawthorne effect, or demand
characteristics. It's critical to use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid words with
VALIDITY of Scores using the Instrument vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no indication that
Whether you can draw accurate inferences from scores on the instrument you'd prefer a particular answer or emotion.
1. Construct Validity - Does the survey instrument accurately measure the hypothetical construct or concept it was
E. Social desirability bias
intended to measure?
2. Concurrent or Criterion Validity - Does the survey instrument associate with other gold standard measures of the • Social desirability bias occurs when respondents give answers to questions that they believe will make them
construct or predict a criterion measure? look good to others, concealing their true opinions or experiences. It often affects studies that focus on
sensitive or personal topics, such as politics, drug use, or sexual behavior.
RELIABILITY of scores using the instrument • Social desirability bias is a type of response bias. Here, study participants have a tendency to answer
Refers to the consistency or repeatability of an instrument. questions in such a way as to present themselves in socially acceptable terms, or in an attempt to gain the
approval of others.
1. Internal Consistency – The degree to which sets of items on an instrument behave in the same way.
A scale’s internal consistency is quantified by a Cronbach’s alpha (α) value that ranges from 0 and 1, with optimal HAWTHORNE EFFECT
values ranging between .7 and .9. α = .84-.86 in three studies (Cohen, et al., 1983)
• Refers to people’s tendency to behave differently when they become aware that they are being observed. As a
result, what is observed may not represent “normal” behavior, threatening the internal and external validity of
2. Test-Retest Reliability – This form of reliability concerns whether the scale is reasonably stable over time with
your research.
repeated administrations
E.g., is there a comparable score on the PSS taken by a group of participants at time 1 and then one month later? • Also known as the observer effect and is closely linked with observer bias.

DEMAND CHARATERISTICS
3. Inter-Rater Reliability – refers to the degree to which different independent judges agree in their ratings.
• Refers to cues that might indicate the research objectives to participants. These cues can lead participants to
E.g., In measuring bullying behaviors, a researcher asks expert judges to make ratings after viewing a video
change their behaviors or responses based on what they think the research is about.
recording of children interacting on a playground.

DESIGN THE SURVEY QUESTIONS

A. Important things to consider:

• The type of questions
o The content of the questions
o The phrasing of the questions
o The ordering and layout of the survey

B. Open-ended vs closed-ended questions:

• Closed-ended questions give the respondents a predetermined set of answers to choose from. A closed-ended
question can include:
o A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree)
o A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree)
o A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age
o categories)
o A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure
o interests)
F. The ordering of the questions
C. The content of the questions
• The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed- ended questions that
• To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to carefully consider each question in the survey. All will encourage the respondent to continue.
questions should be narrowly focused with enough context for the respondent to answer accurately. Avoid • If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group together related questions. You can divide a
questions that are not directly relevant to the survey's purpose. questionnaire into sections to help respondents understand what is being asked in each part.
• When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all possibilities. If you include a list of • If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they should be placed directly next
options that isn't exhaustive, you can add an "other" field. to one another.
VII. PILOT TESTING

• After a draft questionnaire has been prepared and the researcher believes that the questions will obtain the
information necessary to achieve the goals of the study, it is important to pretest the instrument under actual
survey conditions. During the pretest, poorly worded questions will be identified and the overall quality of the
survey instrument refined. Based on the experience of the pretest, the questionnaire will be fine-tuned for use in
the actual survey process

VIII. ADMINISTERING THE SURVEY

• Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will conduct the survey.
Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you will gain access to the sample.
• When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable for answering your research
questions, you can conduct the survey through your method of choice - by mail, online, or in person.

VIIII. ANALYZING THE SURVEY RESULTS

• There are many methods of analyzing the results of your survey. First you have to process the data, usually with
the help of a computer program to sort all the responses. You should also clean the data by removing incomplete
or incorrectly completed responses.
• If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and
organizing them into categories or themes. You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis,
which is especially suitable for analyzing interviews.

VIII. WRITING THE SURVEY RESULTS

• In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey. You should explain the types of
questions you used, the sampling method, when and where the survey took place, and the response rate. You can
include the full questionnaire as an appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.
• Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical
• methods you used to analyze it. In the results section, you summarize the key results from your analysis.
• In the discussion and conclusion, you give your explanations and interpretations of these results, answer your
research question, and reflect on the implications and limitations of the research.