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1. What are some common applications of mobile computing?

• Communication: Email, messaging apps (e.g., WhatsApp, Slack), and voice/video calls
(e.g., Zoom, FaceTime).
• Navigation: GPS navigation apps (e.g., Google Maps, Waze).
• Productivity: Office applications (e.g., Microsoft Office, Google Workspace), note-
taking apps (e.g., Evernote).
• Entertainment: Streaming services (e.g., Netflix, Spotify), mobile gaming.
• Finance: Mobile banking apps, payment systems (e.g., PayPal, Apple Pay).
• Health and Fitness: Activity tracking apps (e.g., Fitbit, Strava), telemedicine.
• E-commerce: Online shopping (e.g., Amazon, eBay).
• Social Media: Social networking apps (e.g., Facebook, Instagram).

2. What are the primary security concerns in mobile computing?

• Data Privacy: Unauthorized access to personal data and sensitive information.

• Malware: Viruses, worms, and trojans that can infect mobile devices.
• Network Security: Risks related to insecure Wi-Fi connections and mobile networks.
• Physical Security: Theft or loss of devices, which can lead to data breaches.
• Phishing: Attempts to trick users into revealing personal information through fraudulent
means.
• App Security: Vulnerabilities in mobile applications that can be exploited.

3. What is a wireless network, and what are its primary benefits?

• Wireless Network: A network that uses wireless communication technologies (such as

Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or cellular networks) to connect devices without physical cables.
• Benefits:
o Mobility: Users can move freely while staying connected.
o Flexibility: Easy to set up and expand without needing physical wiring.
o Convenience: Supports a variety of devices and applications without the
constraints of wired connections.
o Cost Efficiency: Reduces the cost of installing and maintaining physical
infrastructure.

4. Describe the basic components of a wireless network.

• Access Points (APs): Devices that provide wireless connectivity to a wired network,
often in the form of Wi-Fi routers.
• Wireless Clients: Devices that connect to the network, such as smartphones, tablets, and
laptops.
• Network Interface Cards (NICs): Hardware in devices that enables wireless
communication.
• Wireless Controllers: Manage multiple access points and coordinate network traffic.
• Network Switches/Routers: Direct network traffic and connect wireless networks to
wired networks and the internet.
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5. List the advantages of 2G networks compared to 1G.

• Digital Transmission: 2G networks use digital signals, improving voice quality and
capacity over 1G’s analog signals.
• SMS: Introduction of Short Message Service (SMS) for text messaging.
• Improved Security: Digital encryption for more secure communications.
• Better Spectrum Efficiency: Efficient use of available radio spectrum.
• Data Services: Basic data services like GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) for mobile
internet access.

6. How did 3G networks enhance data services compared to 2G?

• Higher Data Speeds: 3G networks offer significantly faster data transfer rates compared
to 2G, supporting higher bandwidth applications.
• Enhanced Mobile Internet: Improved browsing experience with faster load times and
better support for multimedia content.
• Mobile Video: Support for video calls and streaming services.
• Always-On Connectivity: Better support for always-on data connections, improving user
experience for apps and services.

7. How does 4G technology improve mobile internet performance?

• Higher Speeds: 4G provides faster download and upload speeds, significantly improving
the mobile internet experience.
• Lower Latency: Reduced delay in data transmission, enhancing real-time applications
like gaming and video conferencing.
• Improved Network Capacity: Better efficiency in handling more users and devices
simultaneously.
• Enhanced Multimedia Support: Improved quality of video streaming and other high-
bandwidth applications.

8. Explain the Mobile IP registration process.

• Mobile IP Registration:
o Discovery: The mobile device (mobile node) discovers its new location by
communicating with a foreign agent (in the visited network).
o Registration Request: The mobile node sends a registration request to its home
agent, indicating its new location.
o Registration Reply: The home agent updates its records with the mobile node’s
new location and sends a reply to the mobile node.
o Forwarding: The home agent forwards packets destined for the mobile node to
the new location.

9. What is Indirect TCP? Describe the basic operation of Indirect TCP.

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• Indirect TCP: A variant of TCP designed to improve performance in mobile

environments by splitting the connection into two parts: one between the mobile host and
a base station, and another between the base station and the fixed network.
• Basic Operation:
o The mobile host establishes a TCP connection with a base station.
o The base station acts as a proxy, managing the connection with the fixed network.
o This approach reduces the impact of handovers and mobility on the TCP
connection by isolating mobility issues from the core network.

10. What is Snooping TCP?

• Snooping TCP: An optimization technique to improve TCP performance in mobile

networks by allowing intermediate nodes (snooping agents) to monitor TCP connections
and manage data retransmissions more effectively.
• Operation: Snooping agents cache data and acknowledgments, and handle
retransmissions locally to reduce delays and improve performance during handovers.

11. Explain the concept of Mobile TCP.

• Mobile TCP: Refers to enhancements to TCP designed to handle mobility and

interruptions more efficiently in mobile networks. This includes techniques to address
issues like packet loss during handovers and varying signal quality.
• Features: Enhancements include mechanisms to manage handovers, reduce connection
latency, and improve reliability for mobile devices.

12. What is timeout freezing in the context of Mobile TCP?

• Timeout Freezing: A Mobile TCP technique where the timeout interval for TCP
retransmissions is paused or adjusted during periods of connectivity loss or mobility. This
prevents unnecessary retransmissions and reduces the likelihood of connection timeouts
during handovers or temporary disconnections.

13. Describe selective retransmission and its benefits in mobile networks.

• Selective Retransmission: A technique where only the specific lost packets are
retransmitted instead of the entire data stream.
• Benefits:
o Efficiency: Reduces the amount of data that needs to be retransmitted, saving
bandwidth.
o Speed: Improves recovery time for lost packets, enhancing overall performance.
o Reduced Congestion: Minimizes network congestion by focusing on only the
lost packets.

14. What are the key features of IPv6 compared to IPv4?

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• Address Space: IPv6 provides a vastly larger address space (128-bit) compared to IPv4
(32-bit), allowing for more IP addresses.
• Simplified Header: IPv6 has a simplified header format for more efficient processing.
• Improved Security: IPv6 includes built-in support for IPsec, enhancing security.
• Better Multicast Support: Improved multicast capabilities for more efficient data
distribution.
• No Need for NAT: With a larger address space, NAT (Network Address Translation) is
less necessary.

15. How does IPv6 address solve the issue of address space limitation?

• Larger Address Space: IPv6 uses a 128-bit address format, providing approximately
3.4×10383.4 \times 10^{38}3.4×1038 addresses. This is sufficient to accommodate the
growing number of devices and avoid the address exhaustion issues faced by IPv4, which
uses a 32-bit address format with approximately 4.3×1094.3 \times 10^94.3×109
addresses.

1. What is a cell in the context of wireless networks?

• Cell: In wireless networks, a cell is a geographic area covered by a single base station
(cell tower) that communicates with mobile devices. Cells are designed to handle the
radio communication between the mobile devices and the network. The cell is the
fundamental unit in a cellular network, allowing frequency reuse and providing coverage
and capacity.

2. What is GSM, and why is it significant in mobile communications?

• GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): GSM is a standard for mobile
telecommunications that was developed to create a unified, digital, and efficient mobile
communication system. It represents a shift from analog to digital, enabling better voice
quality, SMS, and data services.
• Significance: GSM standardized mobile communication globally, facilitated international
roaming, introduced the SIM card for user authentication, and laid the groundwork for
future mobile technologies like 3G, 4G, and 5G.

3. Describe the hexagonal cell layout in wireless network.

• Hexagonal Cell Layout: This layout is used to represent cells in a cellular network
where each cell is shaped like a hexagon. The hexagonal layout is chosen because
hexagons fit together perfectly without gaps, covering a larger area efficiently and
providing uniform distance to neighboring cells. This arrangement helps in optimizing
frequency reuse and minimizing interference.

4. Explain the frequency reuse concept in clustering of a cell. (cluster size 4)

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• Frequency Reuse: This involves using the same frequency channels in different cells
that are spaced apart to avoid interference.
• Cluster Size 4: The frequency spectrum is divided into 4 distinct sets. Each cluster of 4
cells uses a different set of frequencies, ensuring that cells using the same frequency are
spaced apart by at least 4 cells to minimize interference. This pattern allows the same
frequencies to be reused in non-adjacent clusters.

5. What are the key components of the GSM architecture?

• Mobile Station (MS): The device used by the end-user, such as a mobile phone.
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Equipment that handles the radio communication with
the mobile station.
• Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple BTSs, handles handovers, and
controls radio resources.
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Routes calls and manages the setup, maintenance, and
termination of calls.
• Home Location Register (HLR): A database that contains user profiles and subscription
details.
• Visitor Location Register (VLR): A database that temporarily stores information about
subscribers currently in the MSC’s area.

6. Explain the roles of the Mobile Station (MS), Base Transceiver Station (BTS),
Base Station Controller (BSC), and Mobile Switching Center (MSC) in GSM.

• Mobile Station (MS): The user’s device that communicates with the BTS for voice and
data services.
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Provides the radio link to the mobile station and
manages radio communication within its cell.
• Base Station Controller (BSC): Controls multiple BTSs, manages handovers between
cells, and allocates radio resources.
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Connects calls between users and other networks,
manages call routing, and interfaces with other network components for mobility and
billing.

7. Describe the function of the Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor
Location Register (VLR).

• Home Location Register (HLR): Stores permanent subscriber information such as the
subscriber’s profile, service details, and current location. It handles authentication and
billing information.
• Visitor Location Register (VLR): Stores temporary information about subscribers who
are currently within the area served by the MSC it is connected to. It works with the HLR
to manage calls and services for roaming users.

8. What are the primary entities in the GSM network?

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• Mobile Station (MS)

• Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
• Base Station Controller (BSC)
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
• Home Location Register (HLR)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Authentication Center (AUC)
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

9. What is the role of the Authentication Center (AUC) in GSM?

• Authentication Center (AUC): Ensures the security of the network by verifying the
identity of the mobile station during the authentication process. It generates
authentication parameters and checks the validity of the SIM card to prevent fraudulent
access.

10. How is a call routed through a GSM network from a Mobile Station to
another?

• Call Routing: When a call is made, the MS communicates with the BTS, which sends
the call request to the BSC. The BSC then forwards the request to the MSC, which routes
the call based on the destination number. If the call is to another network, the MSC
interfaces with external networks for completion. The call is then set up and managed by
the respective BTSs.

11. Explain the call routing.

• Call Routing: Involves several steps:

o Call Setup: The MS initiates a call, which is processed by the BTS and BSC.
o Routing: The MSC identifies the destination and routes the call accordingly. It
may involve interacting with other MSCs or external networks.
o Call Establishment: Once routing is determined, the MSC establishes the call
path, and the call is connected through the appropriate BTS.

12. What are the key GSM addresses and identifiers, such as IMSI, MSISDN,
and IMEI?

• IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity): A unique identifier assigned to each

subscriber, used for authentication and location tracking within the network.
• MSISDN (Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number): The phone
number associated with the subscriber, used for call routing.
• IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity): A unique identifier assigned to each
mobile device, used to track and manage devices on the network.

13. How is the IMSI used in GSM, and why is it important?

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• IMSI Usage: It is used to identify and authenticate subscribers within the network. It
allows the network to retrieve subscriber information from the HLR and manage services
such as call billing and roaming.
• Importance: The IMSI is crucial for maintaining the security and integrity of subscriber
identity and ensuring that only authorized users can access network services.

14. Explain the purpose of the IMEI in mobile communications.

• IMEI Purpose: The IMEI is used to uniquely identify a mobile device. It helps in
tracking stolen phones, managing network access, and ensuring that only authorized
devices can connect to the network.

15. How is frequency spectrum allocated for GSM networks?

• Frequency Spectrum Allocation: GSM networks are allocated specific frequency bands
for different purposes:
o 900 MHz Band: Primarily used in Europe and many other regions.
o 1800 MHz Band: Often used for additional capacity or in regions where 900
MHz is congested.
o 850 MHz and 1900 MHz Bands: Used in the Americas.
• Frequency Division: The spectrum is divided into pairs of frequency bands (one for
uplink and one for downlink), with specific channels allocated for voice and data
services.

16. Describe the process of authentication in GSM.

• Authentication Process:
o When a mobile station attempts to connect, it sends its IMSI to the network.
o The network generates a random challenge and sends it to the MS.
o The MS uses the stored secret key (K) and algorithm (e.g., A3/A8) to compute a
response based on the challenge.
o The network compares the response with the expected value. If they match, the
MS is authenticated and allowed to access the network.

17. What is SMS, and how does it work in GSM networks?

• SMS (Short Message Service): A service that allows users to send and receive short text
messages (up to 160 characters) between mobile devices.
• How It Works:
o The SMS is sent from the sender’s MS to the SMS Center (SMSC).
o The SMSC stores and forwards the message to the recipient’s SMSC if the
recipient is not immediately available.
o The recipient’s SMSC then delivers the message to the recipient’s MS.

18. What are the frequency bands used by GSM, and how are they divided?
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• 900 MHz Band:

o Uplink (Mobile to BTS): 890-915 MHz
o Downlink (BTS to Mobile): 935-960 MHz
• 1800 MHz Band:
o Uplink (Mobile to BTS): 1710-1785 MHz
o Downlink (BTS to Mobile): 1805-1880 MHz
• 850 MHz Band (used in Americas):
o Uplink: 824-849 MHz
o Downlink: 869-894 MHz
• 1900 MHz Band (used in Americas):
o Uplink: 1850-