Complex Variable

Introduction to complex variable, complex differentiation and

integration, calculus of residues, contour integration and conformal
mapping.
Books: Advanced Engineering Mathematics by H. K. Das
Theory and Problems on complex variable by M. R. Spiegel

Introduction to complex variable

Set of natural numbers N= {0, 1, 2, 3, ………….}
Addition, multiplication, (subtraction not always possible)
Set of integers Z= {….-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6……}
Addition, multiplication, subtraction (division not always possible)
p
, q  0 p, q are int egers}
Set of rational numbers Q={ q
equation x2 - 2=0, x=  2 , irrational number

1
 0.333333333.................
3 rational number
2  1.4142135624................. irrational number

Set of real numbers R={x, x is rational and irrational}

x2 + 4=0 x=  2i imaginary numbers i2=-1

(x-5)2 + 4=0 x= 5  2i complex numbers

x+iy is a complex variable, it is denoted by z , z=x+iy

Set of complex numbers C={x+iy, x and y are real}

The name complex number is given by Gauss (1777-1855)
N Z QRC
 Complex(C)
|
Imaginery--------------------------Real(R)
|
Irrational------------------------------Rational(Q)
|
Fraction------------Integers(Z)
|
Negative integers---Zero----Positive integers(Natural Numbers)
1=1+i0 is a complex number.

Representation of numbers
Real numbers are represented by a point on a line

1.1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Fig1

Complex numbers are represented by a point (x, y) on the xy plane

called z plane or complex plane. x axis is called real axis and y-
axis is called imaginary axis.

y
z=x+iy P(x,y)
2
z1=2+i (2,1)
1
1.1
x
-2 -1 0 2 3
1
-1

-2

2
 Fig2

The complex number is denoted by z

The Complex number 1+2i is represented by the point (1,2)
In general the complex number x+iy is represented by the point
(x, y) and is denoted by z.

z=x+iy
z1=1+2i

It is also represented by vector OP

y
P(x, y)
2

1 z
1.1
x
-2 -1 O 1 2 3

-1

-2

Fig3

3
 z= x+iy, Rez=x, Imz=y, Conjugate of z is z  x  iy , z  x  iy  z
zz zz
x , y
2 2i
z z  x  y , Modulus z 2
=z
2 2
of z is z  x2  y2 zz  z
z  z  2 x  2 Re z z  z  2iy  2i Im z
x  x2  y2 y  x2  y2 Re z  z Im z  z

Applications
1. Solution of equations
2. Transformation
3. Integration
4. Solution of differential equations.

Properties of conjugate complex numbers.

1. z1  z 2  z1  z 2
2. z1  z 2  z1  z 2
3. z1 z 2  z1 z 2
 z1  z1
  
4.  z2  z2
1. z1  z 2  z1  z 2
Let z1=x1+iy1 z2=x2+iy2
z1 + z2=x1+iy1 +x2+iy2 =x1+x2+i(y1+y2 )
z1  z2  x1+x2-i(y1+y2 )=x1-iy1 +x2-iy2  z1  z 2

2. Similarly z1  z 2  z1  z 2

3. z1 z 2  z1 z 2
z1 z2=(x1+iy1)(x2+iy2)=x1x2-y1y2+i (x1y2+x2y1 )
z1 z 2 =x1x2-y1y2-i (x1y2+x2y1 )
= x1(x2-iy2)-iy1 (x2-iy2)= (x1-iy1)(x2-iy2)= z1 z 2
z1 z 2 = z1 z 2

z1  z 2  z 
z2  z
2
zn  z n

4
  z1  z1
 
4.  z 2  z 2
z1 x1  iy1 x 2  iy 2 x x  y1 y 2  i ( x 2 y1  x1 y 2 )
 .  1 2
z 2 x 2  iy 2 x 2  iy 2 2
x2  y 2
2

 z1   x1 x 2  y1 y 2  i ( x 2 y1  x1 y 2 )
  2 2
 z2  x2  y 2
x ( x  iy2 )  iy1 ( x2  iy2 ) ( x1  iy1 )( x 2  iy 2 ) ( x1  iy1 ) z1
 1 2   
( x2  iy2 )( x2  iy2 ) ( x 2  iy 2 )( x 2  iy 2 ) ( x 2  iy 2 ) z 2

 z1  z z
   1  1
 z2 z3  z2 z3 z2 z3

Properties of modulus of a complex numbers:

1. z1  z 2  z1  z 2

2. z1  z 2  z1  z 2

3. z1 z 2  z1 z 2
z1 z1

4. z2 z2
3. z1 z 2  z1 z 2
2 2 2 2
z  zz z1 z 2  ( z 1 z 2 )( z 1 z 2 ) = z 1 z 2 z 1 z 2 = z 1 z 1 z 2 z 2 = z1 z2 =
z 1 z2 2

z1 z 2  z1 z 2
2 n
If z1=z2=z z2  z zn  z
z1 z1

4. z 2 z2
2
z  zz
2 2 2
z1 z  z1  z1 z1 z1 z1 z1  z1 
  1      
z2  z2  z 2  z2 z2 z2 z2 z2
2 z 
= = 2

z1 z1

z2 z2

5
 z1 z1

z2 z3 z2 z3

1. Triangle inequality
The length of one side of a triangle is less than or equal to the sum
of the length of other two sides.
2
(x1+x2, y1+y2)
x1 

|z1 +z2|
(x2,y2) 2 2
|z2|= x2  y 2
|z2|
(x1,y1)
2 2
|z1|= x1  y1

x1 x2

Fig4

z1  z 2  z1  z 2

2
z  zz
2
z1  z 2  ( z1  z 2 ) ( z1  z ) = ( z 1  z 2 ) ( z 1  z 2 ) = z1 z1 + z1 z 2 + z 2 z1 + z 2 z 2
2 2
Re z  z z  z  2 Re z
= z1  z1 z 2  z1 z 2  z 2
2 2
= z1  2 Re z1 z 2  z 2 Re z1 z 2  z1 z 2 = z1 z 2  z1 z 2

=  z1 
2 2 2 2
z1  z 2  z1  2 z1 z 2  z 2  z2
z1  z 2  z1  z 2
put z2  z2 z1  z 2  z1   z 2 = z1  z2

2. z1  z 2  z1  z 2 (prove yourself)

6
BAC

Example1.1 Prove that

2
z1  z 2  z1  z 2
2
 2
 2 z1  z 2
2
 and deduce
a  a2  b2  a  a2  b2  a  b  a  b
that
2
z  zz
2
z1  z 2  ( z1  z 2 ) ( z1  z 2 ) = ( z1  z 2 ) ( z1  z 2 ) = z1 z1 + z1 z 2 + z 2 z1 + z 2 z 2
2 2
= z1  z1 z 2  z 2 z1  z 2
2 2 2
z1  z 2  z1  z1 z 2  z 2 z1  z 2
z1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2
2
 2
 2 z1  z 2
2


Let a  a 2  b 2 =x and a  a 2  b 2  y
x+y=2a x-y= 2 a 2  b 2 xy=b2

Now
x  y  = x 2 2
2x y  y
2

2 2
=x  y  2 x y
1
=2
 2 2
x  y  x  y  2 xy 
1 2 2 
2
 2a  2 a  b   2 b
2 2

=2 
1
=2
2
4 a  4 a2  b2  2 b
2

2 2
=2a  2a  b a  b  2b
2 2
= 2a  2b  2a  b a  b
2 2
= a b  a b  2a b a b
= a  b  a  b 
2

a  a2  b2  a  a2  b2  a  b  a  b
proved

7
Equation of curves (in complex variable)
Ex.1.2 Prove that z a is the equation of a circle of radius a and
centre (0,0)

z a
x2  y2  a
x2  y2  a2

Ex.1.2a Prove that z  z1 r where z1  a  ib represents a circle of

radius r and centre (a,b)

z  z1  r
x  iy  a  ib  r
x  a  i( y  b  r
( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r
( x  a ) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2

Ex.1.3 Prove that z  3i  2 represents a circle whose radius is 2

and centre (0,-3).
z  3i  2
x  iy  3i  2
x  i ( y  3)  2
x 2  ( y  3) 2  2
x 2  ( y  3) 2  4
Ex.1.4 Find the Cartesian equation of the curve represented by
z 1
1
z3 Ans- x+1=0
Ex.1.5 Prove that z  4i  z  4i  10 represents an ellipse whose foci
are (0,  4)
z  4i  z  4i  10
x  iy  4i  x  iy  4i  10

8
 x  i ( y  4)  x  i ( y  4)  10
x 2  ( y  4) 2  x 2  ( y  4) 2  10
x 2  ( y  4) 2  10  x 2  ( y  4) 2
x 2  y 2  8 y  16  100  20 x 2  ( y  4) 2  x 2  y 2  8 y  16
 16 y  100  20 x 2  ( y  4) 2
4 y  25  5 x 2  ( y  4) 2
(4 y  25) 2  25( x 2  ( y  4) 2 )
16 y 2  200 y  625  25( x 2  y 2  8 y  16)
25 x 2  9 y 2  225
x2 y2 a2 9 16
 1 e2 1  2
1  ba
9 25 b 25 25

foci are (0,  be)  (0,  4)

Ex.1.5a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve represented by

 z4  1
Re  
 2z  i  2 Ans- 16x+2y-1=0

1  z n1
1  z  z 2  z 3  ...........  z n 
Ex.1.6 Show that 1  z hence show that
 1
sin  n  
1 2
1  cos   cos 2  cos 3  ........ cos n   
2 
2 sin
2

Let S= 1  z  z 2  z 3  ...........z n
Sz= z  z 2  z 3  ...........z n  z n 1
1  z n ! 1  z n !
Subtracting S(1-z)= S= 1  z

1  z n 1
1  z  z  z  ...........z 
2 3 n

1 z
i
Let z  e

9
 i 2 i 3 i ni1  ei ( n 1)
1  e  e  e  ...........e 
1  e i
1  cos   i sin   cos 2  i sin 2  cos 3  i sin 3  ...............  cos n  i sin n

1  cos(n  1)  i sin(n  1)


1  cos   i sin 
{1  cos(n  1)  i sin(n  1) }(1  cos   i sin  )

(1  cos   i sin  )(1  cos   i sin  )
{1  cos(n  1)  i sin(n  1) }(1  cos   i sin  )

(1  cos  ) 2  sin 2 
{1  cos(n  1) }(1  cos  )  sin  sin(n  1)  i[sin  {1  cos(n  1) }  sin(n  1) (1  cos  )]

2(1  cos  )

1  cos   cos 2  cos 3  .........  cos n 

i (sin   sin 2  sin 3  ...............  sin n )
{1  cos(n  1) }(1  cos  )  sin  sin(n  1)  i[sin  {1  cos(n  1) }  sin(n  1) (1  cos  )]

2(1  cos  )
Equating real part
1  cos   cos 2  cos 3  .........  cos n
{1  cos(n  1) }(1  cos )  sin  sin(n  1)

2(1  cos )
1  cos  cos(n  1)  cos cos(n  1) )  sin  sin(n  1)

2(1  cos )
1  cos  cos(n  1)  cos n


2.2 sin 2
2
 ( 2 n  1) 
2 sin 2  2 sin sin
 2 2 2

4 sin 2
2
1 (2n  1)
 sin
2  2

2 sin
2

Parametric equations of curves in complex variable

z=x+iy

10
z=acos  +iasin  is the parametric equation
of circle. x= acos  , y= asin 
z=z(  ) is the parametric equation.

z =at2+i2at is the parametric equation of parabola. x= at2 , y=2at

z=z(t) is the parametric equation.

Polar form of the complex number z

Let (r ,  ) be the polar coordinates of the point (x,y) corresponding to
the complex number z=x+iy
  x2  y2 y
  tan 1
x=rcos y=rsin r= x

z=x+iy
=r(cos  +isin  ), polar form of the complex number z
=r ei , exponential form of the complex number z

Ex.1.7 Express the number 1 in polar form.

Let z=1=1+i0 = r(cos  +isin  ), rcos  =1 rsin  =0 r=1
  tan 1 0  0
1=1 (cos0+isin0)

Ex.1.8 Express the number -1 in polar form.

Let z==-1=-1+i0= r(cos  +isin  ) rcos  =-1 rsin  =0 r=1
cos  =-1 sin  =0   

-1=1 (cos  +isin  )

Ex.1.9 Express the following complex numbers in polar form.

1. 1+i
2. -1+i
3. -1-i

11
 4. 1-i

1. 1+i
    2   tan 1 1  
Let z=1+i= r(cos +isin ) rcos =1 rsin =1 r= 4
2  
1+i= (cos 4 +isin 4 )

2. -1+i

Let z=-1+i= r(cos  +isin  ) rcos  =-1 rsin  =1 r= 2   tan (1)

1

  3 3
tan   1   tan  tan(  )  tan 
4 4 4 4

2 3 3
-1+i= (cos 4 +isin 4 )

3. -1-i

Let z=-1-i= r(cos  +isin  ), rcos  =-1 rsin  =-1 r= 2

  tan (1)
1

  5 5
tan   1  tan  tan(  )  tan 
4 4 4 4
2 5 5
-1-i= (cos 4 +isin 4 )

4. 1-i

Let z=1-i= rcos  +irsin  , rcos  =1 rsin  =-1 r= 2

  tan (1)
1

  7 7
tan   1   tan
 tan(2  )  tan 
4 4 4 4
2 7 7
1-i= (cos 4 +isin 4 )

Ex.1.10 Express the complex number 88 3 i in polar form.

12
 Let z=  8  8 3i = r(cos  +isin  ), rcos  =-8 rsin  =  8 3 r=
  tan ( 3 )
256  16 1

  4 4
tan   3  tan  tan(  )  tan 
3 3 3 3
88 3 i 4 4
=16 (cos 3 +isin 3 )

AC============================================
===============================================

Solution of equations
Suppose to solve x3=1

x3-1=0
1 3 1 3
i , i
(x-1)(x2+x+1)=0 x=1, 2 2 2 2

Solution of equation (using complex variable)

z3=1
1
z=13
1
we are to find the three values of 13

Formula
Suppose we are to solve zn=z0
1
z  z0 n
1

= ( x0  iy0 ) n
1
  2
x0  y0
2 y0
(r cos  ir sin  ) n   tan 1
= x0=rcos y0=rsin r= x0
1 1

=r n
(cos   i sin  ) n

1 1

=r n
(cos(2k   )  i sin( 2k   )) n

1 2k   2k  
(cos  i sin
=r n
n n )

13
 1 2k   2k  
(cos  i sin
zk= r n
n n ) k=0,1,2 ,………n-1

Ex.1.11 Solve z3=1

1
Or, Find all the roots of 13
1=1+i0 = rcos  +irsin  , rcos  =1 rsin  =0
r=1   tan 1 0  0

we know that
1
 2k   2k   
n  cos  i sin 
zk= r  n n  k=0,1,2,………n-1

2k 2k
cos  i sin
zk = 3 3 k=0, 1, 2
for
k=0, z0 =1
2 2   1 3 
cos  i sin cos(  )  i sin(  )  cos  i sin
i 
k=1, z1= 3 = 3 3 3 = = 2 2
3 3
4 4     1 3
cos  i sin cos(  )  i sin(  )  cos  i sin  i
k=2, z2 = 3 3 = 3 3 = 3 3 = 2 2
1

Example1.12 Find all the roots of (8  8 3 i) 4

Or, Find the fourth root of  8  8 3 i

 8  8 3i = r cos   ir sin  , rcos  =-8 rsin  =  8 3 r= 256  16
  tan ( 3 )
1   4 4
tan   3  tan  tan(  )  tan 
, 3 3 3 , 3
1 2k   2k  
n (cos  i sin
zk= r n n ) k=0,1,2 ,………n-1
1 1 4 1 4
4 (cos ( 2k  )  i sin (2k  )
zk = 16 4 3 4 3 ), k=0, 1, 2, 3
  1 3 1 i 3
(cos  i sin ) ( i
z0 =2 3 3 =2 2 2 ) =
      3 1
(cos(  )  i sin(  )) ( sin  i cos ) ( i )   3i
z1 =2 2 3 2 3 =2 3 3 =2 2 2
z2 =-1  i 3
z3 = 3 i

14
 1

Example 1.13 Find all the roots of (4  4 i ) 5 and locate them
graphically.
 4  4i = r cos   ir sin  , rcos  =-4 rsin  =4 r= 32   tan 1 (1) ,
  3 3
tan   1   tan  tan(  )  tan 
4 4 4 , 4
1 2k   2k  
(cos  i sin
zk= r n
n n ) k=0,1,2 ,………n-1
n=5
2 (cos 1 (2k  3 )  i sin 1 (2k  3 )
zk = 5 4 4 4 ), k=0, 1, 2, 3, 4
3 3 3 2cis 27
z0  2 (cos  i sin ) 2cis
20 20 = 20 =
11 11 11 2cis99
z1  2 (cos  i sin ) 2cis
20 20 = 20 =
19 19 19 2cis171
z2  2 (cos  i sin ) 2cis
20 20 = 20 =
27 27 27 2cis 243
z3  2 (cos  i sin ) 2cis
20 20 = 20 =
35 35 35 2cis315
z4  2 (cos  i sin ) 2cis
20 20 = 20 =

z1
3 3
z0  2 (cos  i sin )
z2 2
20
x
20

z4
z3

Fig5

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Ex.1.14 Solve x4-x3+x2-x+1=0 by using De Moivre’s theorem
x4-x3+x2-x+1=0

Multiplying by x+1
(x+1) (x4-x3+x2-x+1)=0
x5+1=0
x5=-1
1
x=(-1) 5
-1=-1+i0 =rcos  +irsin  , rcos  =-1 rsin  =0 r=1,

cos  =-1 sin  =0  

1 2k   2k  
(cos  i sin
zk= r n
n n ) k=0,1,2 ,………n-1

2k   2k  
zk =cos 5 +isin 5 k=0, 1, 2, 3, 4
  cis36
z0=cos 5 +isin 5 =
3 3 cis108
z1=cos 5 +isin 5 =
5 5 cis180
z2=cos 5 +isin 5 =
7 7 cis 252
z3=cos 5 +isin 5 =
9 9 cis324
z4=cos 5 +isin 5 =

z2=-1 excluded

Discussion
x2-1=(x-1)(x+1)

x3-1=(x-1)(x2+x+1)

x4-1=(x-1)(x3+x2+x+1)
…………………………………………………………

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x3+1=(x+1)(x2-x+1)

x5+1 =(x+1) (x4-x3+x2-x+1)

………………………………………………

x2+1=(x-i)(x+i) no real factor

x4+1= no real factor

Demoiver’s theorem

cos   i sin  1  cos   i sin 

cos   i sin  2  cos 2   2i sin  cos   sin 2   cos 2  i sin 2
………………………………………………….
cos   i sin  n  cos n  i sin n

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