FORAGE

PRODUCTION GUIDE

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Forage Production
Information in this article is sourced and updated by Perennia from information originally published in
the following guide:

Advisory Committee on Cereal, Protein, Corn and Forage Crops (1991) Atlantic Provinces Field Crop
Guide (Publication No. 100 Agdex No. 100.32) Atlantic Provinces Agricultural Services Coordinating
Committee
Introduction
A forage program must supply high-quality feed on a year-round basis. No single forage species or
mixture will supply the total forage requirement of a livestock farm. The crop grown and storage
method is unique to each farm since the choice is based on capital, equipment, land, labour, time of
year forage is required, size of operation, type of livestock, personal likes and dislikes. On most farms,
the forage program will use several perennial and some annual species as hay or haylage, pasture
and zero-graze.

Production of good quality forages requires the forage crop to be managed as intensively as other
high yielding crops. Proper management of forages includes variety selection, fertilization, pest con-
trol, cutting frequency, and fall management of the forage.

Good forage management must be based on the climate, soils, and end-use of the forage.

Figure 1. Total forage program for pasture and stored feed.

A program of annual and perennial forages as pasture and stored feed provides good quality forage
year-round.

Forage Establishment
Perennial forage plants must develop sufficient size and root reserves to survive winter temperatures
and regrow the following spring.

Spring seeded forages should have adequate development to overwinter well and provide 2-3 t/ha of
dry matter during the seeding year. Fall seeding of legumes is not recommended due to insufficient
time for adequate root system development.

Seedbed Preparation
Small-seeded legumes and grasses require a fine, firm seedbed to get uniform planting depth (¼ - ½”)
and germination. Overworking the soil or using large tillage equipment may result in a very loose
seedbed that needs to be firmed with a cultipacker or roller before seeding. Having the soils too loose
at planting is one of the leading factors in poor establishment. Soil moisture should be able to wick up
from below, rather than depend on rainfall to germinate and establish the seedbed. Working the soils
too early, when the soil is too wet, can lead to crusting and waterlogging, which causes poor emer-
gence of legumes.
Seeding Method
The small forage seeds should be distributed uniformly and covered with 1cm of soil. If the soil is ex-
tremely dry, a slightly deeper placement into moist soil may be beneficial. Either a drill or cultipacker
seeder (e.g. Brillion) may be used. Cultipacker seeders place the seed uniformly in the upper 1cm of
soil and firm the seedbed immediately after planting. Many drill seeders allow the placement of ferti-
lizer in bands below the seed. This is beneficial as seedlings require phosphorous. Seed tubes can be
attached to the drill to place the seed directly over the band of fertilizer for maximum benefit.

Inoculation of Legumes
Legume seed must be inoculated with the proper Rhizobium inoculum before planting. The inoculum
contains bacteria that form nodules on the roots of legumes to fix nitrogen from the air. The correct
inoculant must be chosen for each legume. Packets of commercially available inoculants contain live
bacteria and should be stored in a cool dark place.

The inoculant should be mixed with the seed prior to seeding. It has been found that creating a slurry
by mixing the inoculant with 250-400 ml of water is an effective method of inoculation. This slurry
should then be thoroughly mixed with the seed to ensure effective root nodulation. Seed that has
been inoculated and stored should be re-inoculated to ensure viable bacteria are on each seed at
planting.

Coated Seed
Coatings used on forage seed contain various combinations of inoculating bacteria, lime, nutrients
and bonding agents. Coatings are intended to improve emergence and establishment of forage
stands. Coating can be an effective measure to ensure good inoculation of legume seed. Carry over
coated seed should be re-inoculated to ensure the presence of live bacteria in the year of seeding.

Coated seeds are larger than uncoated seeds; therefore, a kilogram of coated seed contains fewer
seeds than an equal weight of uncoated seed. To plant recommended rates of seed, the setting on
the seeder may have to be increased. Some research indicates seeding rates can remain the same for
coated or uncoated seed as the coating increases establishment to account for the fewer seeds per
pound.

Coated seed may help in reintroducing legumes into pastures or hayfields, particularly in minimum till-
age situations.
Weed Control
Weed control is the process of limiting weed growth and infestations to allow efficient and profitable
forage production. Total weed eradication is expensive and not necessary for forage production. A
weed control program should be designed to reduce the weed population to a level that is not eco-
nomically damaging.

Weed control is an integral part of crop production. A good program starts by identifying the problem.
Knowing what weeds are present in the crop allows selection of the most effective control. Take an
inventory of the type and severity of weeds in the forage crop before harvest.

Divide the weeds into groups such as annuals and perennials, including both grasses and broadleaf
weeds. This should be done yearly, as it allows evaluation of the current program and provides infor-
mation that may necessitate changes in that program. In addition, indicate the severity of infestation
of various weeds by using words such as rare, scattered, occasional, common and/or abundant.

A successful weed control program will consist of two or more types of control since relying on one
control program will usually allow some weeds to escape. Types of control generally fall into four main
categories: mechanical or physical, cultural or management, biological and chemical.

Mechanical weed control is effective in new forage stands. Clipping the field in late June or early July
removes the weed flowers and allows the forage to grow. This gives some control of annual weeds
but will not control perennial weeds such as quack grass or milkweed. Mechanical weed control
methods also include most of the cultivations done to prepare the seedbed.

Cultural weed control is the practice of growing a healthy, vigorous forage crop that will out-compete
weeds. All practices that improve crop growth will help reduce weed populations. Choose a well-
adapted variety, lime and fertilize as recommended by a soil test, plant as early as possible and ferti-
lize older stands. A vigorously growing legume or grass crop leaves little space for weeds. Biological
weed control is practiced to some extent in areas of the Maritimes to control specific weeds by intro-
ducing diseases and insects. Insects are the most effective, an example being the introduction of the
Cinnabar Moth to control tansy ragwort.

Chemical weed control involves the use of herbicides that inhibit the growth of unwanted plants.
Herbicides are specific as to the weeds controlled, stage of crop and weed development, time and
rate of application, and application method. Herbicides are recommended only for uses and methods
of application specified on the label. Always read the label before use. Herbicides should not be the
only weed control method. Use them as part of a weed control program and in conjunction with
sound crop management practices. For more information on pest management in forage crops, refer
to OMAFRA’s Guide to Weed Control in Field Crops (Pub 75A).
Table 1. Forage quality of perennial species under good management. Forage quality is very dependent on management.

Poor Good Very Good Excellent

Alfalfa GoGood
*
Clover - Red *
- White *
- Ladino *
- Alsike *
Birdsfoot Trefoil *
Timothy *
Bromegrass *
Orchardgrass *
Reed Canary * *
Fescue - Tall * * * *
Fescue - Meadow *
Perennial * *
Ryegrass
Redtop *
Bluegrass *

Direct Seeding
New forage seedlings can be established without a companion or cover crop. Direct seeded forage
will normally yield one cut the first year, although it will be only 50% of a regular production year. In
good years, alfalfa planted in early May can be harvested in July and again before the recommended
last date of cut.

Adequate fertility, especially phosphorous, is important to direct-seeded stands. Using a seed drill to
band forage seed over a fertilizer containing phosphates aids seedling growth. (Table 2)

Under-seeding/Cover Crops/Companion Crops

Under-seeding forage with a cereal companion crop is a traditional practice for many farmers in the
Atlantic region. When it is successful, it provides several advantages. These include better erosion
control, increased haylage or grain straw production in the seeding year and reduced weed growth.
The cereal crop can be taken through to a grain harvest, providing the weed control is good and com-
bining occurs early enough for the forage crop to develop properly before winter.

Problems can occur when cereals compete with forages for sunlight, nutrients, and water to the ex-
tent that the forage crop establishment is less than adequate. General experience has been that red
clover and timothy establish better in under-seeded situations than alfalfa and most other grasses.
Fertilizers for Forage
General
Forages utilize large amounts of nutrients to produce a high yielding crop with excellent protein con-
tent.

Soil tests provide fertilizer and lime recommendations to produce the highest economic yields when
accompanied by good management. A soil test should be taken every two to three years to maintain a
productive forage stand.

Fertilizer cost is reduced, and yields increased by liming the soil. Fertilizer use efficiency increases
with a neutral pH. Research shows that forage yields are almost doubled when equivalent fertilizer is
applied to soil at a pH of 6.2, compared to acidic soil with a pH of 5.4.

Figure 2. Recommended pH for Forage Crops

Fertilizing In the Seeding Year

Always apply lime and fertilizer based on a soil test. Limestone should be applied the fall before seed-
ing and worked into the soil in quantities sufficient to raise the pH to 6.4. Choose dolomitic limestone
if your soil requires magnesium.

Table 2. Fertilization in the seeding year

 Recommended Practice Kg of Nutrients/ha Example
N P2O5 K2O Analysis Rate3 (Kg/ha)
Band seeding (Seed planted in rows;
fertilizer drilled 3-5cm below seed)
Broadcast and work in before seeding 15 50 50 5-20-20 250
on in frequently limed and fertilized
soils only
Band at seeding + Boron1 5-15 20-50 10-30 8-32-16 75 to 150
Topdress on grasses after emergence 35-50 0 0 34-0-0 100 to 150
After last cut: (legumes)2 0 30 100 0-10-30 300
(grasses) 10 20 60 5-10-30 200
Broadcast seeding (using Brillion-type
seeder, fertilizer broadcaster, ect.)
Broadcast prior to seeding 15-25 60-150 90-210 5-20-20 300 to 700
Topdress on grasses after emergence 35-50 0 0 34-0-0 100 to 150
After last cut (legumes) 0 30 100 0-10-30 300
(grasses) 10 20 60 5-10-30 200
1. Boron may be needed on legumes. Use soil testing services to determine soil levels and
amounts to be applied. Caution: Excess boron in bands can be toxic to plants.
2. Band seeded alfalfa should produce one cut the first year. A light application of 0 -10-30 plus
Boron might then be applied as a top-dressing.
3. Use the higher rate where lime and fertilizer have been infrequently applied. Otherwise, use
the lower rate.

Phosphorus is very important to ensure good root development and seedling establishment. Banding
phosphorus 2cm below the forage seed is beneficial if soils are low in phosphorus.

All forage seedlings require nitrogen. Legumes need nitrogen to promote growth until they become
nodulated and can fix their own nitrogen. Excess nitrogen applied in the fall will promote winter injury
and will be lost by leaching.

Potassium should be available to plants in the fall to promote good root development, storage of food
reserves for increased spring yields and development of cold hardiness to promote winter survival.
Plants use more potassium than any other element.

Boron should be applied to legumes in the seeding year and subsequent year to help with establish-
ment.

Plants require sulphur for the synthesis of amino acids, which are essential components of proteins. It
also contributes to the digestibility of plants to ruminant animals by narrowing the Nitrogen: Sulphur
ratio. In the past, there was enough atmospheric sulphur contributed to the soil via acid rain to ac-
count for the needs of the plants. As those levels decrease (70% in NS from 1990-2015, Environment
Canada: 2017), there becomes a need for sulphur fertilizer applications to provide for plant needs.
Manure is an excellent source of organic matter and micro-nutrients. Manure should be viewed as a
resource that may reduce the amount of commercial fertilizer required. Values for common manures
can be found in the factsheet “Available Nutrients and Value for Manure from Various Livestock
Types” published by OMAFRA (2013).

Fertilizing Established Stands

Forage stands lacking adequate fertilization will become unproductive, thin out rapidly and revert
back to less productive native swards. Following a balanced fertility program (Table 3) will help ensure
the longevity of the seeded species.

To help maintain established forage stands for hay and silage:

(1) Fertilize annually and generously with potassium, an essential nutrient in maintaining all forage
stands.
(2) While phosphorus is the most essential in the seeding year, a small amount may also be re-
quired annually in the maintenance fertilizer.
(3) Nitrogen is required for pure grass stands or mixtures with less than 50% legume. Apply ferti-
lizer containing nitrogen in early spring and again after each cut. With several forms of nitrogen
fertilizer now available, it is commonly recommended that a urea-based nitrogen fertilizer be
used for spring/first cut applications. Less volatile nitrogen fertilizers are recommended for use
during times of high potential evaporative loss (late June - September). Fertilizer should be ap-
plied not less than four to five weeks before harvest to ensure proper conversion to protein in
the plant.
(4) Where manure is applied, reduce the rate of fertilization according to the kind of manure and
rate of application.
(5) When older grass swards lose productivity, it is often more economical to reseed to a legume
or legume-grass mixture than to continue high nitrogen applications.
Table 3. Fertilization of Established Stands

Kg of Nutrients per Hec-

Recommended Practice tare Example
Rate3(kg/ha)
Analysis
N P2O5 K2O
Stored Feed (Hay or Haylage):
Over 60% legumes
As spring growth begins 20 40 110 5-10-30 200-400
After each cut 0 40 100 0-10-30 200-300
After last cut 0 0 100 0-0-60 100-200
30 to 60% legumes
As spring growth begins 50 0 0 34-0-0 150
After each cut 45 20 45 18-6-18 250
After last cut 10 20 60 0-10-30 100
Over 70% grass
As spring growth begins 75-100 0 0 34-0-0 225-300
After each cut 75-100 20 75-100 18-6-18 390-550
After last cut 10 20 60 5-10-30 200
Pasture:
Over 60% legumes
Apply in mid-June, late July and early Sept.* 0 20 40 0-10-30 150
30% to 60% legumes
Early spring mid-June* and late July* 35 35 35 17-17-17 200
Early September 25 50 50 12-24-24 200
Over 70% grasses
Early spring 50 0 0 34-0-0 150
Mid-June* and late July* 45 15 45 18-6-18 250
Early September 25 50 50 12-24-24 200
Peat soils: Increase the above rates by 25% to 30%.
*Dates are approximate. These are estimates of dates when previous applications will have ceased to stimulate
growth and require replenishing.
Fertilizing Pastures
Forages used for pasture have similar nutrient requirements as those grown for hay or silage. How-
ever, in well-managed pastures, a significant amount of nutrients can be supplied by the grazing ani-
mal in the form of manure. Commercial fertilizer can be used to stimulate early growth.

Once again, a regular soil testing schedule allows you to monitor the nutrient levels of individual fields
and provide a cost-effective method of tailoring fertility applications. Along with Table 3, the following
may prove helpful in assisting in the development of your fertility program.

The timing of fertilizer applications, particularly nitrogen, can greatly influence pasture growth. An
early spring application of nitrate fertilizer stimulates growth while soil temperatures are low and soil
bacteria that release and convert nitrogen to the nitrate form are not yet active. If all pasture areas are
fertilized in the spring, it will usually be necessary to harvest some forage as hay or silage.

For many grass pastures, split applications of nitrogen will result in better grass growth and more effi-
cient use of applied fertilizer. When grasses are heavily fertilized, especially with potassium in early
spring, it is important to use dolomitic limestone to minimize the chances of hypomagnesaemia (grass
tetany) developing in grazing stock. Split applications of potassium (depending on soil test) may help
produce forage with a satisfactory potassium and magnesium balance and prevent grass tetany. In
some pasture situations, especially where white clover is being encouraged, supplemental applica-
tions of phosphorus may be recommended.

Harvest Management
Harvesting should be timed to maximize forage yield and quality while assuring stand survival over a
period of years.

Maximum quality is obtained if the crop is harvested when the legume portion is at the bud to 10%
bloom stage. Cutting at this stage allows for the harvest of three crops per season before September
1 in some parts of the Maritimes. Increases in quality feed resulting from a three-cut system must be
balanced against additional harvest costs compared to a two cut system and possible reductions in
stand longevity.
Figure 3. Optimum date for first cut

When the entire forage crop on a farm is planted to one crop or mixture, the crop must be cut within a
week to get top quality feed. To increase the period that forage crops are at the desirable growth
stage, a range of species or cultivars can be planted. Select the legumes based on maturity and
match the grass (species and cultivar) to the legume. Keep in mind the length of time to harvest all the
forage on a farm, the soil, climate, and other characteristics of each field when selecting the species.
For information on forage species, see Perennia’s Forage Production page for the most recent forage
variety test information.

The leaves of a legume forage crop contain approximately 70% of the protein. It is important that they
not be lost during harvest. Cutting with mower-conditioners, tedding soon after cutting and harvesting
as silage are all methods which reduce potential leaf loss. For hay systems, raking at or near 40%
moisture content and baling at slightly higher moisture levels (i.e. 25% moisture) plus the use of ef-
fective preservatives or barn dryers are methods to reduce leaf shattering. Windrow inverters are ca-
pable of moving and inverting windrows of nearly dry forage with little leaf loss to improve drying.
Table 4. Average optimum dates for first cut in post-seeding years

Climatic
Zone Very early Early Medium Late
Orchardgrass Early Timothy Medium timothy Late timothy
Bromegrass Reed canarygrass Double cut red clover single cut red clover
Flemish(early) alfalfa Alsike clover Birdsfoot trefoil
Standard(medium) alfalfa Perennial ryegrass
1 June 1-8 June 6-13 June 11-18 June 15-22
2 June 9-16 June 14-21 June 19-26 June 23-30
3 June 17-24 June 22-29 June 27-July 4 July 1-8
4 June 25-July 2 June 30-July 7 July 5-12 July 9-16
5 July 3 or later July 8 or later July 13 or later July 17 or later

Table 5. Effect of maturity on TDN, crude protein, and animal intake

Stage of growth TDN**% Crude protein (%) Intake Value

Grass Legume (kg/100kg body wt.
Vegetative 63 15.2 21 3
Bud 57 11.3 16.4 2.5
Bloom 50 7.5 11.5 2
Mature 44 4.1 7.3 1.5
Regrowth 52 11.3 16.1 2.6
** Total digestible nutrients
Fall Management
Legumes and grasses store food reserves in the fall. These reserves are stored as starch in the roots
and are used as the winter energy supply to provide the energy for spring growth. High levels of
stored reserves are required to make the plants resistant to winter temperatures.

Root reserves are accumulated and stored in the fall during a period called the Critical Fall Harvest
Period (Figure 4). Cutting during the critical fall harvest period lowers root reserves, weakens plants,
and increases the chance of winterkill.

For a long life of perennial stands and the fastest growth the following spring, do not cut or graze al-
falfa or other perennials after the critical date in your area (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Starting date of critical harvest period of alfalfa.

Pasture Management
Good pasture is the result of good management of both the forages and the grazing animals.

Grazing management plays a role in optimizing forage yields, maximizing the longevity of improved
pasture species, and maintaining sward quality. Pasture species benefit from short periods (one to
several days) of heavy grazing followed by a recovery period to provide regrowth. The recovery period
will vary through the season but, on average, will be twice as long by August 1 as it is on June 1. Pas-
ture legumes like white clover and birdsfoot trefoil are a valuable feed component, and thus the pas-
ture should be managed to ensure their survival.

Although recently seeded pastures with improved forage species will give the greatest yield response
to applied fertility, the yield of older permanent pastures can often be increased by fertilizer or manure
applications.

Annual crops such as ryegrass and cereals produce high-quality grazing during the middle and latter
parts of the grazing season.

Additional information on this subject can be found in the Perennia Pasture Management Manual.

Forages for Soil Improvement

The rotation of crops on land in a regular order of sequence is a practice that should be adopted by
all farmers. Forages fit well into such rotations because they improve soil structure, reduce soil ero-
sion, break insect and disease cycles and add organic matter to the soil. If a legume is used, further
benefit will come from nitrogen fixed by the legume.

Alfalfa is a good rotation crop where a long-term productive forage is required and where conditions
such as good soil drainage and soil pH of 6.0 or greater are maintained. Red clover, usually mixed
with timothy, is another good break or rotation crop, especially where soil conditions are not suitable
for alfalfa production. Sweet clover is another legume that may help improve soil structure due to its
potential to develop a deep taproot. However, sweet clover is less suited for forage production than
either red clover or alfalfa.

Annual ryegrass is also a useful crop to control soil erosion, add organic matter and improve soil
structure. Annual ryegrasses are poor hosts for the root-lesion nematode and are not hosts for the
clover and northern root-knot nematodes. Growing the ryegrasses in rotations may alleviate these
pest problems. As a late-season pasture or cover crop, Italian type annual ryegrass can be under
seeded to cereal crops. Ryegrasses may also be direct seeded in the spring to provide pasture and/or
silage. If silage is to be harvested, a Westerwolds type annual ryegrass should be sown. Additionally,
ryegrasses can be sown until early August for erosion control. A lack of soil moisture may hinder the
establishment of summer seeding.
 Table 6. Root mass of various species in the top 15cm of soil in the year of seeding, Charlottetown data.

Species Tons dry root mass per ha

Italian ryegrass, Lemtal 3-5

Italian ryegrass, Maris Ledger 3-5

Westerwolds ryegrass, Promenade 3-5

Westerwolds ryegrass, Aubade 2-3

Red clover 1.5-2.5

Alfalfa 2.5-2.5

Barley 0.5-1.0

Perennial Forage Species

Choosing a Mixture
A good forage program begins with selecting the proper legume and grasses to suit conditions under
which the mixture will be grown. Simple mixtures using one legume and one or two grasses are rec-
ommended as they are more productive than more complex mixtures. In a complex mixture, the spe-
cies' competitive strength is often not rated to the forage yield. Strong competition from a low-yield-
ing species will depress the total yield of the stand. The use of more than three species in a mixture
will depress yield, even if the species are matched for competitive ability. Pure seeding of a legume
or grass is recommended only when field conditions are well suited for the species, and the farmer
has experience growing the crop.

Choose the legume first. Legumes are beneficial as they contain more protein than grasses, and they
improve the soil by fixing nitrogen. Including legumes in the rotation makes this fixed nitrogen availa-
ble to subsequent crops while improving soil structure and increasing organic matter. The legume
chosen is determined by the drainage, winter hardiness, intended use and required duration of stand
required. Fertility and pH can be improved to suit the species. Choose the grass to complement the
legume from the list of recommended mixtures. Choose specific cultivars for the mixture based on
heading or flowering date. Legumes should reach first flower when the grass starts to head to ensure
maximum yield and quality at harvest. Legumes in pure stand or mixtures must always be inoculated
with the proper species of bacteria.
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
Alfalfa is the highest yielding perennial forage available in the region. Alfalfa/grass mixtures are best
used for stored and green feeding, as pasturing alfalfa shortens the life of the stand and risks bloat.
Alfalfa fills an important role in crop rotations, improving soil structure and building soil nitrogen fertil-
ity for future non-legume crops. Alfalfa can be grown alone or mixed with grasses. The addition of a
grass to an alfalfa stand often reduces heaving, icing, and lodging of alfalfa while slowing weed en-
croachment and providing assurance of forage production when there is severe winterkill of legumes.

Alfalfa is a deep-rooted crop that will live for several years on well-drained soils but will suffer de-
creased yields and persistence on poorly drained soils.

Alfalfa needs a well-limed soil; top performance will be achieved on soils limed to a pH of 6.5 or
greater. Low pH results in poor yields and the short life of the stand. The pH must be increased be-
fore planting and maintained with further applications of lime.

Alfalfa must be properly inoculated with the correct bacteria to take advantage of the nitrogen-fixing
ability of legumes.

The life of alfalfa under good field conditions varies from two to five years. Long-life can be expected
when two cuts are taken as stored feed, but a shorter life span will be found if the field is cropped
three times or grazed.

Figure 5. Rooting depth in soil: alfalfa and brome grass have

deep root systems with only 65-70% of their root systems in the
top 30cm of soil. Red clover and timothy have 90-95% of the
roots in the top 30cm of soil. Because of this deeper root sys-
tem, alfalfa and brome grass are more productive on light tex-
tured soil which tend to dry out rapidly.
Red Clover (Trifolium pratense)
Red Clover is a biennial or short-lived perennial. It is more tolerant to low pH and variable drainage than
alfalfa. Red clover yields well in the year following seeding. Red clover is difficult to make into hay and
is more easily managed as haylage. Timothy is the best grass to mix with red clover for stored feed
mixtures. It is not recommended in pasture mixes as it has a short life and does not tolerate grazing
well. Red clover should not be included in alfalfa/grass mixtures as it competes severely with the alfalfa
during the seeding year resulting in a thin stand of alfalfa after the red clover dies out.

Red clover is available as double-cut (D.C.) or single cut (S.C.) types. Double cut red clover reaches the
cutting stage about ten days before single cut and has a stronger, more vigorous regrowth. Red clover
makes an excellent plough-down or green manure crop. If direct seeded in early spring of a favourable
year, red clover will produce a four tonne/hectare hay crop in late July and a further two tonne of top
growth and two tonnes of roots by late fall. Best results are obtained when the red clover is inoculated
with the proper species of Rhizobium bacteria.

White Clover (Trifolium repens)

White Clover is first and foremost a pasture species and is the most important pasture legume in Atlan-
tic Canada, supplying significant amounts of palatable, nutritious grazing.

Due to its low growth habit and its ability to decrease the risk of bloat, white clover is frequently in-
cluded in pasture mixtures with orchard grass, fescues, perennial ryegrass or reed canary grass.

There are three basic types of white clover classified based on leaf size. The small-leaved white clovers
are typified by "wild" or naturalized white clovers found in many older pastures. The small size of these
plants restricts their forage production, but these types are very persistent, particularly under continu-
ous grazing. The intermediate type is included in improved pasture mixtures because they show supe-
rior forage production and nitrogen fixation compared to "wild" types.

The third classification of white clovers is the large leaf or Ladino type clovers. Ladino-type clovers are
more productive but are frequently shorter-lived than either the wild or intermediate type clovers. They
are only recommended in haylage mixtures, particularly on soils with variable drainage. This legume is
very difficult to wilt properly for hay.

Whenever white clover is included in a pasture or pasture seed mix, management plays a key role.
Close grazing with adequate recovery periods and fertile soil conditions provides excellent conditions
to maintain the percentage of white clover in the sward.

Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)

Birdsfoot trefoil can be difficult to establish in some areas of the Atlantic Provinces. This species does
not compete well with grasses and weeds, nor does it persist well under intensive grazing. However,
when successfully established, trefoil will often perform better than other legumes in areas of low fertil-
ity and under poor drainage.

Trefoil-based mixtures can be used for pasture, stored feed, or green chop, and under proper manage-
ment, can have a long lifespan. Trefoil is well adapted to pasturing as it does not cause bloat and is a
good legume for fields that are difficult to plow and reseed. Trefoil should not be grazed until it is 25 to
30 cm high in the spring. For the best results, use rotational grazing to prevent the animals from grazing
the stand too low. Trefoil requires the same fall rest period as alfalfa. Yields will be reduced in succeed-
ing years if trefoil is harvested or grazed during the critical fall harvest period. As a stored feed, trefoil
matures later than other legumes and maintains feed value well.

Trefoil is slow to establish and does not tolerate shading in the seedling stage. Direct seeding gives the
best results if good weed control is practiced. If trefoil is under seeded to cereals, the cereal should be
seeded at not more than 50 kg/ha and removed early as green chop. Trefoil must be inoculated with
the correct Rhizobium bacteria for maximum yield.

Figure 6. Drainage requirements of forage crops.

Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum)

Alsike is a medium height clover with smaller leaves and flowers than Ladino. Alsike will grow on wet,
acid soils but will not grow on dry soils or during hot weather. Yields can be good under high fertility
and even rainfall distribution but are not consistent from year to year. The addition of alsike to mixtures
often lowers overall yield after the establishment year because it is very short-lived. It is therefore not
recommended in perennial mixtures but may have potential if combined with annual ryegrass.

Timothy (Phleum pratense)

Timothy is widely adapted, easy to establish and maintain and compatible with all legumes. When cut
at the boot to heading stage, it is a good forage for all classes of livestock. Good second crops can be
obtained if the first crop is removed at the heading stage and before bloom appears. Timothy contains
about half the crude protein of alfalfa and has less regrowth than bromegrass or orchardgrass. It may
have difficulty surviving in alfalfa fields under a three-cut system. Timothy added to a legume mixture
provides insurance against loss of forage production during a year in which legumes winterkill.
Timothy will grow on acid, wet soils, but both yield and quality are improved when grown on well-
drained soils where both lime and fertilizer are added. Since it has a shallow root system, regrowth is
slow in hot, dry weather.

Cultivars are available in a range of maturities so that the harvest periods can be spread out while
maintaining optimum quality.

Bromegrass (Bromus inermis)

Smooth bromegrass is an excellent companion for alfalfa in a hay or haylage system. Bromegrass has
early maturity, and good yield and regrowth, especially on droughty soils. It forms a strong sod and fills
in as the alfalfa thins out. Bromegrass provides excellent regrowth in a two-cut system but may have
poor persistence in a three-cut system.

Bromegrass has a deep root system and requires deep, well-drained soils. It spreads by short rhizomes
and requires high amounts of nitrogen if grown as a pure stand or after alfalfa has thinned out of a mix-
ture. Bromegrass provides early pasture and will regrow to provide good late pasture.

Orchardgrass (Dactylls glomerata)

Orchardgrass is a very early aggressive species which can be used for stored feed, green chop, or pas-
ture. Because of a late May to early June heading date and rapid regrowth, it should be seeded alone
or with aggressive legumes such as Flemish alfalfa or Ladino clover. Orchardgrass must be cut just as
heads emerge from the boot as quality decreases rapidly after heading.

Orchardgrass requires well-drained soils to give top yields. Surface drainage is necessary as ice or
flooding will kill orchardgrass.

In some cases, heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizer in the spring may help orchardgrass to recover
from winter injury, but in general, orchardgrass should be limited to well-drained soils.

Reed Canarygrass (Phalarls arundlnacea)

Reed canarygrass is a tall, wide leaved plant. It will tolerate excess moisture (even flooding) and low pH
but produces high yields on well-drained, fertile soils. Reed canarygrass loses quality extremely rapidly
after heading. If grazed heavily enough or cut sufficiently often to prevent heading, it makes good qual-
ity, high yielding forage.

Low intake and lack of palatability in reed canarygrass have been associated with mildly toxic alkaloids
contained in the plant. Recent plant breeding work has produced several new varieties with low alkaloid
contents and improved animal acceptability. Seed of this crop does not retain its germination in storage
as well as most other grasses. Carry-over seed should not be planted without first having it tested for
germination.

Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea)

Tall fescue is a deep-rooted, long-lived perennial, tolerant to imperfect drainage, adapted to most soils
and resistant to trampling. It is basically a bunchgrass, but frequent mowing or grazing will produce an
even sod.
Tall fescue is adapted to pasture or stored feed. Both palatability and quality are improved if the fescue
is cut early and grazed heavily. Fescue makes a good fall pasture as growth is adequate, and quality is
maintained at that time of year. New cultivars of fescue and fescue-cross hybrids may improve live-
stock acceptance of this productive grass.

Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis)

Meadow fescue, a perennial bunchgrass that grows 35-75cm tall, is adapted to the same climate and
soil as timothy but yields best on deep rich soils. It will tolerate wet soils with proper care and fertiliza-
tion. Meadow fescue is a good grazing grass and is used primarily for pastures, generally in mixtures. It
can be used as a stored feed if seeded in mixtures using timothy, orchardgrass and legumes. Meadow
fescue has increased in popularity over the past few years because of its versatility, tolerance to varia-
ble drainage and ability to regrow better than timothy during the mid-summer period.

Perennial Ryegrass (Lollum perenne)

Perennial ryegrass is a high-quality forage that makes an excellent pasture for grazing animals. It is a
rapidly growing species that requires fertile soil, ample moisture, and a relatively mild climate.

Perennial ryegrass is a bunchgrass with a relatively shallow root system, which can make it quite un-
productive during hot weather if moisture is limiting.

The high nutritional value of perennial ryegrass and fast establishment makes it an excellent addition to
a pasture mixture.

Due to the susceptibility of currently recommended perennial ryegrasses to winter injury, it is advised
that this grass not be the main grass of a mixture, except where relatively mild winter conditions exist.

Annual Forage Crops

Most of the forage in the region is currently supplied by perennial legumes and grasses. Annual crops
can be used to supplement perennial forage crops or as emergency crops to provide forage after win-
terkill of perennial crops.

The major use of annual forages is high-quality feed production during the critical fall harvest period of
legumes. When selecting an annual crop, one must consider the cost of working the land, the time of
year the annual forage is produced, the yield and the end use of the forage. Annual forage crops work
well in rotation with perennial legumes.

Italian and Westerwolds Ryegrass (Latium multiflorum)

Italian and Westerwolds ryegrasses seeded early in the spring will provide high-quality forage from mid-
July to late fall. Ryegrass should be seeded at 15-35 kg/ha and fertilized at seeding, in July, and in Au-
gust for maximum yields. Nitrogen, in particular, is essential for high yields. Italian ryegrass is suitable
for pasture, while Westerwolds ryegrasses may be used for stored feed and pasture.
Cereals
Cereals, either winter or spring, can be utilized for supplemental grazing or harvested as a silage crop.

Grazing
Spring cereals can be seeded from early spring until late August to provide grazing approximately six
weeks from planting. Winter cereals seeded in late summer can also provide some fall grazing. Seeding
winter cereal earlier than recommended for grain production could increase fall grazing at the risk of
increasing disease pressure in the cereal crop. Winter cereals may also be grazed in early spring. The
use of cereals as a grazing crop is usually more expensive than using annual crops such as ryegrass,
kale, rape or permanent pasture.

Silage
Cereals are easily ensiled since water-soluble carbohydrate levels are high, buffering capacity is low
and moisture content is easily controlled. Since quality, especially protein content, is relatively low, ce-
reals should be harvested before they get too mature. Maximum total yield and total protein is obtained
by harvesting at or before the soft dough stage.

Forage crops are frequently undersown with a cereal cover crop. Harvesting the cereal as a silage crop
reduces the chance of forage stand damage due to the cereal lodging. Early removal of the cereal crop
as silage will also provide a longer fall growing period for the new forage crop.

Green Fodder Crops

Green fodder crops encompass the forage brassicas such as kale, rape and stubble turnips. These
crops provide superior late-season supplementary grazing due to their excellent yields and mainte-
nance of feed quality. These crops also represent a viable way of extending the grazing season into the
late fall. Forage brassicas require strip or small paddock grazing for maximum utilization.

Extensive cultivar evaluation has been carried out in this region, and the following species can be rec-
ommended.

Kale (Brassica oleracea)

Kale requires a long growing season for the crop to fully develop (90-100 days). It is frost hardy, making
it suitable for grazing up to December.

Forage Rape (Brassica napus)

Rape grows faster than kale and produces a leafy crop for late-season consumption. Feeding rape to
milking cows may taint milk.

Stubble Turnips (Brassica rapa) and Hybrids

Stubble turnips are fast-growing, with large leaves and a root bulb. About 3/4 of the root bulb is above
ground and is readily grazed by livestock. The hybrids are leafier but have no, or very small, root bulbs.
The hybrids are also suitable for green manuring.

Further information on the above crops is available from your local field crop specialist.
Recommended Haylage Mixes
A. Light Soils with good surface and internal drainage
Mixture Rate Comments
80% Alfalfa 15 kg/ha This high yielding, high-quality mixture is suited to well-drained
20% Timothy soils with high pH’s and good fertility. The fibrous roots of the
timothy improves resistance to frost heaving.
65% Alfalfa 17 kg/ha The regrowth of orchardgrass is much quicker than timothy re-
35% Orchardgrass growth and is well adapted to a three-cut system. Select an
early alfalfa cultivar.
55% Alfalfa 20 kg/ha This mixture should be used on well-drained fields and with an
45% Bromegrass early type of alfalfa. Bromegrass is very nutritious and produc-
tive.
B. Variable Soils – fields with both imperfectly and well-drained areas
Mixture Rate Comments
50% Alfalfa 12 kg/ha Consider sowing this mixture in the fields where soil type is vari-
30% Red Clover able and not suited for alfalfa.

20% Timothy
30% Alfalfa 15 kg/ha For fields containing soils with variable drainage. Formed
15% Red Clover dykeland as an example.

5% Ladino Clover
50% Timothy
C. Imperfectly Drained Soils – Heavy Land Mixtures
Mixture Rate Comments
60% Red Clover 12 kg/ha Best suited for short rotations. Contains a high percentage of
40% Timothy red clover in the first two production years. As the red clover
thins out, both yield and quality decline.
40% Red Clover 12 kg/ha The addition of white clover improves the quality and persis-
18% Ladino White tence of legumes in the field. Not suitable for hay due to difficult
Clover wilting characteristics of white clover.

42% Timothy
30% Red Clover 20 kg/ha The additional grass improves the reliability and longevity of this
10% Ladino White mixture.
Clover
40% Timothy
20% Meadow Fescue
Recommended Hay Mixtures
A. Moderate to Well-Drained Soils
Mixture Rate Comments
65% Alfalfa 15kg/ha Although alfalfa is not as difficult to wilt as red clover, a hay drier will allow bail-
35% Timo- ing at higher moisture, improving leaf retention. A hay drier will allow bailing at
thy higher moisture, improving leaf retention.
50% Alfalfa 20 kg/ha Select an Early type of alfalfa. Bromegrass is superior to timothy in quality and
50% Brome- regrowth.
grass
60% Alfalfa 17kg/ha Select an Early type of alfalfa. This mixture is well adapted to three cuts. Or-
40% Or- chardgrass has excellent regrowth potential but matures very early; therefore,
chardgrass the first cut should be harvested as haylage.
Or- 11kg/ha Three cuts are possible. Heads out in late May/early June; therefore, plan to
chardgrass use first growth for pasture or haylage.

Bromegrass 15kg/ha This species is well adapted to deeper droughty soils. Due to early maturity,
plan to take the first cut as haylage. When seeding in late spring or early Au-
gust, a grain drill will give better results.
B. Poor and Imperfectly Drained Soils

Mixture Rate Comments

30% Red 12 kg/ha Red clover is difficult to field cure. A hay drier will help prevent heating in the
Clover mow. Red clover is a short-lived perennial which cannot be expected to pro-
70% Timo- duce longer than three years.
thy
25% Red 15 kg/ha By the third production year, the mixture will be predominately reed canary
Clover grass, which is adapted to a wide variety of soil types and will even tolerate pe-
75% Reed riodic flooding. Select low alkaloid varieties of reed canary grass.
Canary
Grass
Timothy 10 kg/ha Straight timothy should be considered on farms without hay driers and/or in
coastal areas subjected to difficult drying conditions. Select varieties with vary-
ing maturities to spread out the harvest season.
Reed Canary 12 kg/ha Low alkaloid varieties of canary grass can be used on farms without hay driers
Grass or on extremely poorly drained fields that are subjected to periodic flooding.
The quality and palatability decline rapidly following heading.
Recommended Perennial Pasture Mixes
A. ell Managed Controlled Grazing System
These mixtures are designed with careful consideration of the specific attributes of each species. Larger,
erect, easily defoliated species with quick regrowth are best suited for rotational grazing and conservation.
Close attention must be paid to fertility levels, stocking rates and rotational grazing practices if the follow-
ing mixtures are to remain productive.

Moderately Well to Well-Drained Soils

Mixture Rate Comments

White Clover 30% 10kg/ha A good dual-purpose mixture for early cut silage and
Orchardgrass 70% early rotational grazing. Must be managed well, if un-
derutilized will become stemmy. Subject to winter kill-
ing.
White Clover 10% 22kg/ha Very palatable mixture. Caution, perennial ryegrass
Orchardgrass 30% lacks winter hardiness. Consideration must be given to
Perennial Ryegrass winterkill susceptibility.
60%

White Clover 10% 22kg/ha Dual-purpose mixture for early cut silage and rotational
Orchardgrass 30% grazing. Meadow fescue helps give a better bottom to
Meadow Fescue 60% the pasture producing a tighter sod, more resistant to
punching.

Imperfectly Drained Soils

Mixture Rate Comments

White Clover 10% 20 kg/ha Late flowering timothies are better adapted to grazing.
Timothy 25%
Meadow Fescue 65%

White Clover 10% 22 kg/ha Dual-purpose mixture for early cut silage and rotational
Orchardgrass 30% grazing.
Meadow Fescue 60%

White Clover 10% 22 kg/ha The fescue hybrid will become coarse by third produc-
Orchardgrass 30% tion year, reducing overall palatability. Best suited for
Fescue hybrid 60% rotationally grazed beef cow pastures.
Imperfect to Poorly Drained Soils

Mixture Rate Comments

White Clover 10% 20 kg/ha The fescue hybrid will become coarse by the third year,
Timothy 25% reducing overall palatability. Best suited for rotationally
Fescue Hybrid 65% grazed beef cow pastures.

White Clover 10% 16 kg/ha Reed canary grass is slow to establish, but once estab-
Timothy 35% lished, is very perennial. Can be cut for silage and the
Reed Canary Grass aftermath grazed.
55%

B. Traditional Non-Intensive, Continuously Grazed Pastures

Continuously grazed pastures should be stocked about twice as heavily in spring than in mid-summer. This
will improve leafiness of the pasture and reduce spring wastage. Species in the following mixtures are
shorter and semi-prostrate and, therefore, better adapted to continuous grazing.

Moderately Well to Well-Drained Soils

Mixture Rate Comments

White Clover 10% 22 kg/ha Caution, the perennial ryegrass lacks winter hardiness.
Kentucky Bluegrass Consideration must be given to winterkill susceptibility.
40% Mixture is unproductive under dry conditions.
Perennial Ryegrass
50%
Well Drained to Poorly Drained Soils

Mixture Rate Comments

White Clover 15% 18 kg/ha Very palatable, however, subject to drought stress.
Timothy 30% Lacks productivity in mid-summer.
Kentucky Bluegrass
55%
White Clover 10% 22 kg/ha This mixture can become sod bound. Requires good
Kentucky Bluegrass fertility. Limited regrowth in mid-season.
30%
Creeping Red Fescue
60%