Chapter 1: Basics of Human Nutrition

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

• Define nutrition as a science and some related terms and
concepts.
• Describe the six classes of nutrients and their functions.
• Explain the difference between food security and nutrition
security.
• Discuss malnutrition, its different forms and nutrition
intervention strategies to combat its impact.
1.1. Human Nutrition

• Nutrition is the science of nutrients and other substances

in food and the body’s handling of them.
• Body’s handling means how our body:
- Digests
- Absorbs
nutrients and other
- Transports
substances consumed.
- Assimilates
- Etc.
Cont…

• Nutrition is a multidisciplinary science that incorporates a

wide variety of disciplines such as:
- Food science
- Biology - Genetics
- Education
- Physiology
- Psychology
- Biochemistry
- Sociology and so forth.
- Immunology
- Medicine
1.2. Nutrition and Health

• Nutrition has always played a significant role in human life.

• Adequate and balanced nutrition contributes to optimum
health.
• Nutritional inadequacy, on the other hand, leads to disease
and even death.
• This is because the essential physiological functions of our
body rely on nutrition: respiration, circulation, digestion,
metabolism, thermoregulation and growth and repair of
body tissues.
Cont…

• Food choices can benefit or harm our health.

• Of course, some people will become ill or die young no
matter what choices they make, and others will live long
lives despite making poor choices.
• For most of us, however, the food choices we make will
benefit or impair our health in proportion to the wisdom
of those choices.
- Wise choices---->Good health
- Careless choices---->Poor health (disease) and death
1.3. Definitions of Basic Terms and Concepts

• Food: any product derived from plants or animals that can

supply energy and nutrients essential for the growth,
maintenance, and repair body tissues.
• Diet: the foods and beverages a person eats and drinks.
• A meal: the foods eaten or prepared for eating at one
time, for instance, during the breakfast.
• Nutrient: a substance in food that provide energy,
structural materials and regulatory agents to support
growth, maintenance and repair of the body tissues.
Cont…

• Organic nutrient: a nutrient that contain carbon atoms

bonded to hydrogen or other carbon atoms—for example,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins.
• Inorganic nutrient: a nutrient that does not contain
carbon—for example, water and minerals.
• Essential nutrient: a nutrient that cannot be synthesized in
the body in amounts it requires and as such, must be
supplied in the diet—for example, glucose, vitamin C,
linoleic acid, methionine, lysine, histidine, etc.
Cont…

• Nonessential nutrient: a nutrient that can be made in the

body in amounts it needs—for example, vitamin D,
glutamic acid, proline, etc.
• Macronutrient: a nutrient that is required by the body in a
large amount (in kg or g)—for instance, carbohydrates,
proteins, fats and water.
• Micronutrient: a nutrient that is required in a very small
quantity (in mg or μg or IU)—for example, vitamins and
minerals.
Cont…

• Nutritional requirement: the lowest dietary intake level of

a nutrient that supports basic physiological functions and
promotes optimal health.
• Nutrition assessment: defined as a comprehensive
analysis of a person’s nutritional status using
anthropometric, laboratory, clinical and dietary methods.
1.4. Nutrients and their functions

• Scientists classify food nutrients into six categories:

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, minerals, and
vitamins.
• Foods also contain nonnutrients such as phytochemicals:
polyphenols, pigments, antioxidants, etc.
• These bioactive substances in food have health benefits
such as decreasing risk for cancer and heart diseases.
• In this chapter, our discussion will focus only on nutrients.
1.4.1. Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are the single most abundant and

economic source of food energy in the human diet.
• In our body, they serve various functions:
- Primary energy source (4 kcal per gram)
- Readily available energy store (in the form of
glycogen)
- Supply carbon for the synthesis of cell components
(e.g. DNA)
- Part of the structures of some cells (e.g.
glycoproteins and glycolipids in cell membrane)
Cont…

• Carbohydrates:
- Monosaccharides: contain a single sugar unit
(glucose, fructose, and galactose)
- Disaccharides: consist of two sugar units
(sucrose, lactose, and maltose)
- Oligosaccharides: contain 3 to 10 sugar units
(stachyose, raffinose, and verbacose)
- Polysaccharides: consist of more than 10
monosaccharides (starch, cellulose, etc.)
1.4.2. Proteins

• Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules in our

body, playing important roles in all aspects of cell structure
and function.
• Because of this versatility, proteins serve an astonishing
variety of functions in living organisms.
• Among the three energy-yielding nutrients, proteins are
our body's last choice for energy.
• This is because proteins are needed for countless other
functions in our body.
• The major functions of proteins are listed in the next table.
Cont…

Function Description Example (s)

Structure Make up the basic • Hydroxyapatite in bones
structure of tissues such as • Collagen in skin, teeth, ligaments
bones, teeth, skin, etc. and tendons
• Keratin in hair and fingernails
Catalysis Enzymes • Lingual lipase catalyzes digestion
of lipids in the mouth
Movement Proteins found in muscles, • Actin and myosin in muscle
ligaments and tendons
Transport Proteins involved in the • Glucose and sodium transporters
movement of substances in • Lipoproteins and oxygen
the body transport proteins in the blood
Cont…

Function Description Example (s)

Communication Protein hormones and cell- • Insulin and glucagon regulate
signaling proteins blood glucose
• CCK helps regulate digestion in
the small intestine

Protection Skin proteins and immune • Collagen in skin

proteins • Fibrinogen helps blood clot
• Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
fight off infection
Regulation of Proteins that regulate the • Albumin is a major regulator of
fluid balance distribution of fluid in the fluid balance in the circulatory
and pH body’s various compartments system
and those that readily take up • Hemoglobin is an important
and release H+ to maintain pH regulator of blood pH
of the body
1.4.3. Lipids

• Even though they contribute to the development of several

chronic diseases, lipids are essential to good health.
• The role of lipids in our body include:
- Supply more energy than carbs and proteins (9
kcal/g)
- Sustainable energy storage (in the form of fat)
- Regulate body temperature
- Synthesis of hormone-like chemicals (e.g.
eicosanoids and leptin)
Cont…

- Signaling of electrical impulse

- Enhance absorption of other nutrients like water-
soluble vitamins
- Structural component of cell membrane
1.4.4. Vitamins

• Vitamins play many important roles:

- Part of coenzymes that participate in energy
metabolism (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
pantothenic acid, etc.)
- Promote cell growth, reproduction, vision, bone
health, gene expression, and blood clotting (folate,
vitamin A, B6, B12, and K, etc.)
- They stabilize free-radicals (e.g. vitamins C and E)
1.4.5. Minerals
• Some of the functions of minerals include:
- Participate in enzymatic reactions by serving as
cofactors
- Maintain normal fluid and electrolyte balance (Na, K,
Cl, etc.)
- Mineralization of bones and teeth development (Ca,
Mg, K, P and F)
- Participate in blood clotting (K)
- Assist in nerve impulse transmission and muscle
contraction (Na, K, Mg)
- Synthesis of hemoglobin (Fe), insulin (Zn) and HCl (Cl)
1.4.6. Water

• Water:
- Acts as a biological solvent
- Serves as a chemical reactant in biochemical
reactions
- Delivers nutrients to and waste products from
tissues
- Major component of blood and other bodily fluids
- Acts as a lubricant and cushion around joints and
inside eyes, the spinal cord, and, in pregnancy, the
amniotic sac surrounding the fetus in the womb
- Helps regulate body temperature
1.5. Planning a healthy diet

• What kinds of foods should I eat, and how much of them

should I eat?
• This question is not easy to answer because there are tens
of thousands of available foods to consume.
• How well we nourish our body does not depend on the
selection of any one food.
• Instead, it depends on the overall eating pattern—the
combination of many different foods and beverages over
days, months and years.
Cont…

• Out of these thousands of foods a person may select a

combination of few foods that deliver a full array of
nutrients.
• However, s/he should have a plan to make such a choice—
what is often called dietary planning.
• People use different tools to plan a healthy diet: dietary
guidelines, food guides or patterns (e.g. USDA or WHO
food guides), diet planning principles, nutrition labels, etc.
1.5.1. Food groups and their sources

• Food groups (food guide or food pattern) can be defined as

a collection of foods that share similar nutritional
properties.
• Foods can be placed into categories according to the type
of nutrients they provide.
• USDA food groups, for instance, are as follows;
- Fruits: rich source of simple sugars, vitamins and
minerals (banana, mango, papaya, etc.)
- Vegetables: rich source of vitamins, minerals and
fiber (cabbage, broccoli, carrot, beetroot, etc.)
Cont…

- Grains: rich source of carbohydrate and contribute

minerals and vitamins (wheat, rice, maize,
sorghum, teff, etc.)
- Protein foods: beef, pork, poultry, fish, legumes
(peas, beans, soyabean, lentil etc.)
- Milk and milk products: contribute protein,
vitamins and minerals (yogurt, cheese, etc.)
- Fats and oils: significant source of lipids (sunflower,
flaxseed, nuts, etc.)
1.5.2. Dietary guidelines

• Dietary guidelines have been developed by the WHO, most

national governments, and other organizations.
• The guidelines are intended to educate the public
regarding healthy food choices, set nutrition policies, and
plan menus.
• They provide advice on what to eat and drink to meet
nutrient needs, promote health and prevent disease.
• Dietary guidelines that are appropriately formulated can
help consumers who want advice to help them translate
their nutrient needs into foods and healthful eating
patterns.
Cont…

• In Ethiopia, the development of dietary guidelines is lead

and coordinated by Ethiopian Public Health Institute
(EPHI).
• Government institutions such as Ministries of Health,
Agriculture and Education involve in the process.
Cont…

Fig 1.6. MyPlate

1.5.3. Diet planning principles

• Adequacy refers to a diet that provides sufficient energy

and enough of all the nutrients to meet the needs of a
health people.
• Balance refers to consuming enough—but not too much—
of different types of foods in proportion to one another.
• Kcalorie (energy) control is the management of food
energy intake.
• Nutrient density is a measure of the nutrients a food
provides relative to the energy it provides.
Cont…

• Moderation is the consumption of enough but not too

much of a substance (e.g. alcohol, fats, sugar, etc.).
• Variety is the consumption of a wide selection of foods
within and among the major food groups.
1.6. Food and Nutrition Security

• Food security and nutrition security are related but distinct

concepts.
• Food security refers to a situation when all people, at all
time, have physical, social and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
• Nutrition security exists when, in addition to having access
to a healthy and balanced diet, people also have access to
sanitary environment, adequate health services and proper
care and feeding practices that allows them to stay healthy
and utilize the foods they eat effectively.
Cont…

• Food security is necessary or a precondition to adequate

nutrition, but it is not sufficient to ensure nutrition and to
prevent malnutrition—it does not always lead to an
improved nutritional situation.
• This is because, for instance, a child who has access to
even the healthiest diet would not be able to benefit fully
from that diet if he or she were ill or were living in the
unsanitary conditions that foster illness.
• Recently, the concept of food and nutrition security,
which represents a more integrated way to combine the
two concepts, has been emerging and is used by health
and nutrition experts.
Cont…

• Food and nutrition security exists when all people at all

times have physical, social, and economic access to food,
which is safe and consumed in sufficient quality and
quantity to meet their dietary needs and food preferences,
and is supported by an environment of adequate
sanitation, health services and care, allowing for healthy
and active life.
• The definition of food and nutrition security highlights the
fact that food security is a multifaceted problem, which
includes four key dimensions: availability, access,
utilization and stability.
Cont…
Cont…

Fig. 1.1. The concept of food and nutrition security

1.7. Nutritional Status and Malnutrition

• Nutritional status is the health of a person as it relates to how

well his/her diet meets that person’s individual nutrient
requirement.
• Undernutrition and overnutrition make up the extreme ends of
what is called the nutritional status continuum, and both are
examples of poor nutritional status.
• A person with optimal nutritional status is in the “center” of
the nutritional status continuum.
Deficiency symptom Toxicity symptom
Nutrient intake
Undernourished Optimal nutrition Overnourished
Cont…

• Malnutrition is defined as a state of poor nutrition due to too

little or excess nutrient intake or imbalances in nutrient intake.
• Overnutrition manifests itself in three ways: overweight
(BMI>25 kg/m2), obesity (BMI>30 kg/m2) and diet-related
noncommunicable diseases (e.g. type 2 diabetes and
hypertension).
• Undernutrition, on the other hand, manifests itself in four
broad forms: wasting, stunting, underweight and
micronutrient deficiencies (also called hidden hunger).
Cont…

Fig. 1.1. Five forms of Malnutrition

Cont…

• Malnutrition (specifically, undernutrition) can be primary or

secondary, depending on the underlying factor.
• Primary malnutrition results from inadequate dietary intake of
a nutrient, whereas secondary malnutrition is caused by
something other than an inadequate intake such as a disease
condition or drug interaction that reduces nutrient absorption
or accelerates use, hastens excretion or destroys the nutrient
(for instance, celiac disease that may lead to iron deficiency).
• Primary nutrition can be treated by making changes in person’s
diet, but secondary malnutrition must first be addressed by
treating the disease or choosing proper drug.
Cont…

• Malnutrition can also be classified as acute or chronic,

depending on the period of food starvation.
• Malnutrition caused by recent severe food restriction or
starvation is called acute malnutrition.
• On the other hand, the type of malnutrition that results from
long-term food deprivation is referred to as chronic
malnutrition.
• Acute malnutrition is characterized by wasting (low weight-for-
height) and chronic malnutrition is characterized by stunting
(low height-for-age).
Cont…

• In other words, if an individual is too thin for his height, s/he is

considered to be wasted and if he is too short for his age, s/he
is considered to be stunted.
• Stunting is irreversible (difficult to treat), whereas wasting is
associated with a higher risk of death (especially, if not treated
properly).
• Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) presents itself in two forms:
marasmus and kwashiorkor.
• Marasmus is characterized by excessive weight loss.
• Kwashiorkor is distinguished by edema (accumulation of fluid in
various parts of the body).
Cont…

• Very often individuals experience excessive weight loss and

edema at the same time– such a condition is known as
marasmic kwashiorkor.
• Together, marasmus and kwashiorkor, are named as Protein-
Energy Malnutrition (PEM).
Cont…

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2. Five forms of Malnutrition
1.7.1. Causes of undernutrition

• Undernutrition is not caused by a single factor.

• Rather, it is a result of diverse and interconnected factors.
• UNICEF developed a conceptual framework that identifies
three levels of causes of undernutrition:
- Immediate causes
- Underlying causes
- Basic causes
 Cont…
Fig 1.3. UNICEF’s Conceptual Framework

Individual
level

Household
and
community

Societal/national level
Cont…

appetite
nutrient absorption
calories needed to fight infection

Fig 1.4. The vicious cycle of undernutrition and infectious disease

1.7.2. Status of Malnutrition in Ethiopia

• Malnutrition (specifically, undernutrition) is a major health

problem in Ethiopia.
• The country has made remarkable progress in reducing child
stunting (58 to 38%), wasting (12 to 10%), and underweight (41
to 24) levels over the past three decades.
• Sustainable economic growth, strong pro-poor spending by the
Government of Ethiopia, and health and agriculture extension
systems all contributed to this success.
• Nonetheless, Ethiopia is not on track to meet the global World
Health Assembly targets by 2025.
Cont…

• The recent conflict in northern part of the country, governance

challenges, inflation, and natural disasters have also reversed
some of the progress achieved so far.
• Progress on infant and young child feeding practices is mixed
and children’s dietary diversity remains one of the lowest in
Africa.
Cont…

Fig. 1.5. Trend of Malnutrition among children in Ethiopia (EDHS, 2016)

1.7.3. Impacts of malnutrition

• Malnutrition has a series of public health consequences that

diminish the individual quality of life and the prospects for
socioeconomic progress.
• The impacts of malnutrition can be reflected at the individual,
household, and community level.
• Problems resulting from nutrient deficiencies include birth
defects, growth failure, poor cognitive development (learning
disabilities), impaired immunity (morbidity or disease),
blindness, incapacity to work (reduced economic productivity)
and deaths (mortality).
1.7.4. Intervention strategies to combat malnutrition

• Nutrition intervention strategies are designed to change

nutrient intake, nutrition-related knowledge or behavior,
environmental conditions, or access to supportive care and
services.
• Nutrition interventions are broadly classified as nutrition
specific (direct) and nutrition sensitive (indirect) interventions.
• Nutrition specific interventions address the immediate causes
of undernutrition, whereas nutrition sensitive interventions are
those which seek to solve the underlying causes of
undernutrition.
 Cont…

Nutrition-specific
interventions

Nutrition-sensitive
interventions

Fig. 1.6. The UNICEF Framework

Cont…

• Nutrition specific interventions:

- Adolescent, preconception, and maternal health and
nutrition
- Dietary or micronutrient supplementation
- Promotion of optimum breastfeeding
- Complementary feeding and responsive feeding practices
- Treatment of severe acute malnutrition
- Disease prevention and management
- Nutrition interventions in emergencies
Cont…

• Nutrition sensitive interventions:

- Agriculture and food security
- Social safety nets
- Early child development and maternal mental health
- Women’s empowerment
- Child protection
- Schooling
- Nutrition education
- Water and sanitation
- Health and family planning services
1.8. Nutrition Sensitive Agriculture (NSA)

• NSA a food-based approach to agricultural development that puts

nutritionally rich foods, dietary diversity, and food fortification at the
heart of overcoming malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies.
• Nutrition sensitive agriculture works in three main ways to contribute
for improved nutrition:
- Making food more available and accessible (increasing
production)
- Making food more diverse and production more sustainable
(home gardening, mixed cropping, and integrated
agriculture)
- Making food more nutritious (biofortification)
• NSA interventions aim to improve nutrition security mainly through
agriculture.
Chapter 2: Diversified Food Production and Consumption
Learning Objective

At the end of this chapter students will be able to:

• Explain the importance of dietary diversification and diversified
food production.
• Describe the dietary diversification strategies.
• Identify and promote the production and consumption of
nutrient rich and underutilized crops and varieties.
• Demonstrate integrated farming methods: home gardening,
mixed cropping, small livestock raising, and poultry keeping.
• Explain how to enrich/enhance the nutrient content of the
family foods using different food groups.
2.1. Dietary Diversification

• Dietary diversification is the consumption of a wide variety of

foods across nutritionally distinct food groups.
• Dietary diversity is defined as the number of different foods or
food groups consumed over a given period of time.
• It can be measured at the household or individual level through
use of a questionnaire.
• Most often it is measured by counting the number of different
food groups rather than the number of different foods
consumed.
Cont…

• At household level, dietary diversity is usually considered as a

proxy measure of access to food (e.g. of households capacity to
access costly food groups), while at individual level it reflects
dietary quality, mainly micronutrient adequacy of the diet.
• The reference period can vary, but is most often the previous
day (24 hour—usually, previous day and night) or week.
• Nutrients from different food sources can interact to increase
the absorption and bioavailability of other nutrients.
• Different foods from within each food group provide more of
some nutrients than others, and can complement each other
for essential micronutrients.
Cont…

• Variety diet is generally important because it ensures adequacy

and balance of a diet to achieve better nutrition.
• Dietary diversification, which is one of the food-based strategies
to address micronutrient deficiency, is perceived as a viable,
cost-effective and sustainable solution to the problem of
malnutrition, particularly of rural households.
2.2. Dietary Diversification Strategies

• Dietary diversification, in conjunction with nutrition education,

focuses on improving the availability, access to and
consumption of nutrient rich foods with high bioavailability of
micronutrients throughout the year.
• Dietary diversification strategies are designed to:
- Enhance the energy and nutrient density of cereal-based
diets
- Increase the production and consumption of micronutrient-
dense foods (especially fruits, vegetables and animal-source
foods)
- Incorporate enhancers of micronutrient absorption, and
reduce the antinutritional content of cereals and legumes
through germination, fermentation and soaking.
Cont…

• Strategies for food and dietary diversification at the community

and household levels include a range of food-based activities
that maximize the availability of greater amounts of nutritious
foods.
• These activities include:
- Promotion of mixed cropping and integrated farming systems
- Introduction of appropriate new crops and varieties into the
agro-ecology (such as soybean)
- Promotion of underexploited traditional foods, home
gardens, and small livestock raising
Cont…

- Promotion of improved preservation and storage of

fruits and vegetables to reduce waste, postharvest
losses and effects of seasonality
- Designing nutrition behaviour change communication
programs to encourage the consumption of a healthy
and nutritious diet
Cont…

• The different dietary diversification strategies are grouped into

three main strategies as:
- Producing variety and nutritious agricultural foods
- Reducing postharvest loss and improving processing
- Designing nutrition behavior change communication
programs
2.2.1. Producing variety and nutritious agricultural foods

• Diversified food production is the practice of producing a

variety of crops or animals, or both, on one farm, as
distinguished from specializing in a single commodity.
• Diversified food production is the basic element of food security
and dietary diversity.
• It highly contributes to dietary diversification.
• Farmers need to know what to produce on-farm to optimize
nutrition.
• They also need to have crop specific guidelines.
• To achieve food and nutrition security dietary quality over
quantity is usually recommended.
Cont…

• The agriculture workers should clearly identify locally

appropriate energy and nutrient rich plant- and animal-source
foods and should actively involve, promoting and assisting the
production and utilization of these foods.
• Nutrient-rich and underutilized locally-adapted varieties need
to be highly promoted.
• Production diversification can offer support for multiple
pathways to nutrition, including:
- Food availability and dietary diversification
- Natural resource management
- Productivity enhancement
Cont…

- Reduced seasonality and risk (e.g. from monocrop

failure due to biotic or abiotic stresses, price shocks)
- Improved income streams and reduced cost of a
nutritious diet
- Adaptation to climate changes
- Women’s empowerment, based on production of home
gardens and minor crops, which in many cases would
constitute production diversification.
Cont…

• Diversified food production interventions:

- Promoting home gardening: fruits and vegetables
- Promoting production and utilization of animal-source
foods: small livestock rearing and fishing
- Increasing production and consumption of locally
available nutrient-rich underutilized foods
- Promoting production and consumption of legumes
(which are important source of proteins, iron and zinc)
- Promoting use of biofortified foods (e.g. orange fleshed
sweet potato and sweet corn)
- Promoting production and mixed consumption of staple
crops
2.2.2. Reducing postharvest loss and improving processing

• Increasing diversified food production is critical for ensuring

global food security, but this may not be sufficient.
• Beyond growing more food, retaining more of the food that is
already grown would make a significant contribution to food
and nutrition security.
• It is evidenced that 20-30% of harvest is lost due to bad storage
and handling.
• Improved storage and preservation reduces seasonally of food
availability and access.
Cont…

• Reducing PH loss and promoting processing improve household

nutrition by:
- Increasing food and prolonging availability and
consumption of micronutrient-rich foods
- Preserving or increasing the nutrient content of the food
- Increasing income through higher profit margins of food
sold during the off-season or with value added
processing
- Improving food safety
- Increase consumers access to diverse food (because of
increased availability and reduced prices)
2.2.3. Designing nutrition behavior change communication

• Nutrition behaviour change communication is considered an

effective household food diversification strategy.
• It is found effective to promote diversified agricultural foods
production and consumption.
• Appropriate production, harvesting, and postharvest handling
methods should be communicated among the farmers.
• Community members in group and at the household level can
be educated on the nutritional value of the local foods and the
preparation and preservation methods.
• Maternal and child nutrition and the appropriate feeding
practices should be communicated among the group of
pregnant and lactating mothers.
2.3. Family Foods Nutrient Enrichment Mechanisms

• There are different methods by which a household can enhance

or enrich the nutrient content of its foods.
• These include:
- Combination
- Fermentation
- Germination
- Fortification
2.3.1. Combination

• Combination is the practice of combining cheaper and

commonly available foods from different food groups to
improve the quality of nutrients.
• Combining foods from different food groups is the easiest way
of eating all nutrients.
• Cereals lack certain amino acids and these are present in pulses.
• On the other hand, pulses lack some other amino acids that are
present in cereals.
• When the two food sources are combined during food
preparation, the quality of protein becomes as good as that of
animal products such as milk.
2.3.2. Fermentation

• Fermentation is a process whereby the sugars and other

carbon-containing nutrients in food are converted to desirable
substances by the activity of microorganisms.
• Fermentation improves the taste, flavour, texture, nutrition,
safety and shelf-life of foods.
• Fermentation improves the digestibility and bioavailability of
nutrients in food.
• This is because it reduces the antinutritional factors (like
phytate, oxalate, tannin, enzyme inhibitors, etc.) present in
some foods such as cassava, legumes, grains, etc.
Cont…
2.3.3. Germination

• Germination is the process by which pulses and other grains

begin to sprout or grow into plants.
• These agricultural products need to be soaked in just enough
water so that all of it is absorbed.
• If extra water in which they are soaked is discarded, a lot of
nutrients are lost.
• Germination improves the nutritional quality of grains and
legumes by increasing nutrient digestibility, reducing the
antinutritional factors content, boosting the contents of free
amino acids and vitamins and improving functionality.
• During germination, complex molecules are broken down into
lower molecular weight molecules which are more digestible
and more readily absorbed by the body.
Cont…
2.3.4. Food fortification

• Food fortification is defined as the practice of adding vitamins

and minerals to foods during preparation or processing to
increase their nutritional value.
• It is a proven, sustainable, cost-effective and high-impact
strategy for improving diets and for prevention and control of
micronutrient deficiencies.
• Foods can be fortified by vitamins A, D and folic acid, and
minerals such as iron, zinc, and iodine.
• There are different types of food fortification: mass (universal)
fortification, targeted fortification, point-of-use fortification,
and biofortification.
Cont…

• The types of fortification that will be most appropriate and

effective in a country depends on several factors including:
- The prevalence of certain micronutrient deficiencies
- The population (s) most affected
- Dietary compositions
- Available infrastructure
- Capacities for food processing
- Production systems
- National regulation and governmental leadership
2.3.4.1. Large-scale food fortification

• Mass fortification (also referred to as Industrial or large-scale

fortification) is the addition of micronutrients during processing
to commonly consumed foods such as flour, oil, sugar and
condiments.
• Mass fortification programs can be categorized as mandatory—
meaning they are initiated by the government—or voluntary
where food processors add nutrients to their foods on their
own volition but still governed by regulatory limits.
• Mandatory fortification programs are increasingly common,
especially when it comes to fortified flour and iodized salt.
Cont…
2.3.4.2. Point-of-use fortification

• Point-of-use fortification (formerly known as home or

household fortification) is the addition of vitamins and minerals
to food that has been cooked and is ready to be eaten.
• For instance, caregivers can use micronutrient powders (MNPs)
to fortify complementary foods.
• MNPs are single-dose packets containing multiple vitamins and
minerals (folic acid, iron, zinc, iodine, etc.) in powder form that
can be sprinkled onto food without affecting the taste or color.
• They are recommended in places where children have low
dietary diversity, locally available foods have low nutritional
value, or when a child has infectious diseases such as malaria,
diarrhea and worms.
Cont…
2.3.4.3. Biofortification

• Biofortification is the process of improvement of nutritional

profile of plant-based foods through agronomic approaches,
genetic engineering and conventional breading.
• For instance;
- Rice, beans, maize, and sweet potato (iron)
- Wheat, beans, sweet potato, and corn (zinc)
- Rice, sweet potato, corn, and cassava (Provitamin A)
• Nutrient poor diets based on staple crops (tubers and cereals)
typically lead to multiple micronutrient deficiencies, but
biofortification can increase the crop’s nutritional value using
traditional breading and agronomic biofortification techniques.
Cont…

• However, biofortification via genetic engineering—which allows

for simultaneous introduction of multiple micronutrients in a
single crop—could support increased levels of multiple
micronutrients in single food crop and high-level accumulation
of micronutrients.

Golden rice
Cont…
Chapter 3: Safe Production and Handling of Plant Products
Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

• Describe the difference between food quality and food safety.
• Explain safe production and postharvest handling of agricultural
products.
• Describe the importance of safety management systems in
ensuring food safety.
• Identify causes and impacts of postharvest loss.
3.1. Food Quality and Safety

• Safe production and proper postharvest handling of agricultural

products aims to ensure both the quality and safety of the
product.
• Food quality is defined as the totality of all attributes or
characteristics that determine the acceptability of a product by
consumers.
• Food safety, on the other hand, is defined as the concept that
food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared
and/or eaten according to its intended use.
• Thus, food quality is a broader concept than food safety and in
addition to it includes nutritional value, sensory quality and
convenience.
Cont…

• Food safety is always nonnegotiable since lack of it may

compromise the health of product consumers.
• Food safety is related to the presence of and levels of hazards in
food at the point of consumption.
• A hazard is any biological, chemical or physical agent in or
condition of food with potential to cause adverse health effects
to consumers.
Cont…

• Thus, hazards can be classified as:

- Physical hazard: straw, sand, plastic, glass, hair, etc.
- Chemical hazard: naturally occurring toxicants, microbial
toxins, agrochemicals, antibiotics, cleaning agents,
additives, heavy metals, etc.
- Biological hazard: bacteria, fungi, virus, protozoa and
parasites
Cont…

• The source of hazard can be farmland, water, organic and

inorganic fertilizers, pesticide, equipment, etc.
• As the introduction of food safety hazard can occur at any stage
of the food supply chain, adequate control throughout the food
chain is essential.
• Thus, food safety is ensured through combined efforts of all the
parties participating in the food chain.
3.2. Food safety and Nutrition Linkage

• An estimated 600 million—almost 1 in 10 in the world—fall ill

after eating contaminated food and 420, 000 die every year,
resulting in the loss of 33 million health life years.
• US$110 billion is lost each year in productivity and medical
expenses resulting from unsafe food in low-and middle-income
countries.
• A vicious circle of disease and malnutrition is created by unsafe
food, particularly affecting infants, young children, the elderly
and the sick.
• Children under five years of age bore 40% of the total global
foodborne disease burden, with 125, 000 deaths every year.
Cont…

• Foodborne diseases impede socioeconomic development by

straining health care systems and harming national economies,
tourism and trade.
• Food safety and nutrition are inextricably linked, yet the
importance of food safety in this relation often overlooked.
• Food safety and nutrition are often addressed as separate
issues.
• Improving food safety standards and regulations and enforcing
their implementation is essential to safeguard the health and
nutrition of the population.
Cont…

• Food safety greatly affects the food utilization pillar/dimension

of food and nutrition security.
• Improved food safety will contribute to improved nutritional
status and also to the reduction and prevention of many
diseases.
• There cannot be healthy diets without food safety.
• The nutritious foods that contribute to healthy diets, such as
fresh fruits and vegetables, nuts, legumes, animal-source foods
such as meat, dairy and eggs, and seafood are the foods that
can be one of the mot susceptible commodities to food safety
hazards.
Cont…

• Thus, all actors in the agri-food systems must consider safety

and nutritional quality of foods for providing safe and health
diets.
3.3. Food safety management system (FSMS)

• FSMS is a systematic approach to preventing and controlling

food safety hazards.
• The purpose of a food safety management system is to ensure
that food is safe to eat and will not lead to outbreaks of
foodborne illness among consumers.
• They help food business operators to comply with national or
international standards and regulations, such as ISO 22000 and
Food Safety Act in Ethiopia.
• All businesses are required to put in place, implement and
maintain a FSMS.
Cont…

• The type of safety system required will depend on the size and
type of business.
• For some food businesses such as farming, implementation of
GAPs and GHPs can help address food safety effectively.
• For other food businesses, especially food processing plants or
large scale catering services where the food production chains
are more complicated, a more advanced food safety monitoring
systems, such as HACCP, is recommended.
• FSMS is not only a legal requirement, but also a helpful tool to
ensure safe practices are followed within a business.
Cont…

• FSMS include Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), Good

Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), Good Hygiene Practices
(GHPs), Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs), and
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems.
• Benefits of FSMS include:
- Increased consumer confidence
- Less customer/consumer complaints
- Enhanced compliance with food laws and standards
- Less product recalls or returns
- Increased opportunity for certification
3.3.1. Good agricultural practices (GAPs)

• Good agricultural practices are defined as a set of practices

aimed at improving the quality, safety, and sustainability of
agricultural products.
• They are proactive measures to minimize food safety hazards
potentially associated with crops or animals.
• Primary production should be managed in a way that ensures
that food is safe and suitable for its intended use.
• It should not be carried out in areas where the presence of
contaminants would lead to unacceptable level of such
contaminants in food, e.g. near industries which emit toxic
gases and dusts or discharge wastewater containing heavy
metals.
Cont…

• Producers should, as far as practicable, implement measures to:

- Control contamination from soil, water, fertilizers,
pesticides, or any other agent used in primary production.
- Protect food sources from fecal and other contamination.
- Control plant and animal health
- Use authorized chemicals or medicines and in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions.
- Manage waste and store harmful substances
appropriately.
- Package, transport and store the food appropriately.
3.3.2. Good hygiene practices (GHPs)

• The handling of any food, including crops, requires the

application of GHPs appropriate to the stage of production
along the food chain.
• According to Codex Alimentarius Commission, GHPs refer to all
practices regarding conditions and measures necessary to
ensure the safety and suitability of food.
• GHPs includes activities carried out on the farm, in slaughter
and packing houses, storage, processing and retail units, and in
homes by consumers.
Cont…

• The scope of GHPs has been described in the Codex General

Principles of Food Hygiene and incudes the following:
- Primary production (farming and animal husbandry)
- Design of facilities and equipment (packinghouse, storage,
etc.)
- Establishment maintenance, cleaning and disinfection, and
pest control
- Personal hygiene (employee )
- Control of operation
- Product and consumer information (traceability)
- Training and competence
3.4. Food safety standards

• Food safety standards set out the requirements for a food

safety management system and and can be certified to.
• They map out what an organization needs to do to demonstrate
its ability to control food safety hazards in order to ensure that
food is safe.
• Food safety standards require food business operators to
develop/adopt, document, implement and maintain a robust
FSMS according to their requirements.
• Keeping food safe is a complex process that starts on the farm
and ends with the consumer.
Cont…

• Standard specify how the food should be grown, produced,

handled, packaged, shipped/transported and sold to keep them
safe.
• They provide guidance on hygienic food handling for farmers
and processors.
• ISO 22000 and FSSC 22000 are widely recognized standards for
food safety management systems.
• ISO 22000 standard is an internationally recognized standard by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
• It lays necessities for a food safety management system.
Cont…

• The standard is designed to provide a framework for

organizations in the food industry to identify and control food
safety hazards throughout the entire food chain.
Cont…

• Critical aspects of ISO 22000:

- Hazard analysis (a thorough hazard analysis to identify a
potential food safety risks and establish control measures to
mitigate these risks)
- Prerequisite programs (primary conditions and activities to
maintain a hygienic environment for food production)
- HACCP principles (a systematic strategy for locating,
analyzing, and mitigating any risks associated with food
production)
- Management system (based on plan-do-check-act cycle)
- Communication (effective communication throughout the
food chain is crucial to ensure that all stakeholders know
their roles and responsibilities regarding food safety)
Cont…

• FSSC is built on the foundation of ISO 22000.

• It includes all the requirements of ISO 22000 standards and
adds specific requirements that apply to the food industry.
• Critical aspects of FSSC 22000:
- ISO 22000 standard requirements
- Additional requirements (related to prerequisite
programs, food defence against bioterrorism, food fraud
prevention, and allergen management, among others)
- Sector-specific modules (for different segment of the food
industry such as food manufacturing, packaging, etc.)
- It is recognized by GFSI
3.5. Postharvest loss

• Substantial amount of the food produced for human

consumption can be lost between harvest and the moment of
consumption.
• This loss is known as postharvest loss.
• Postharvest loss can be quantitative or qualitative.
• Quantitative loss refers to the reduction in the amount (weight
or volume) of a product.
• Qualitative loss includes those that affect the nutrient/caloric
value, the acceptability and the edibility of a given product—
altered physical condition or characteristics.
3.5.1. Causes of postharvest loss

• The reduction in the quantity and quality of a product may

result due to:
- Insects and rodents
- Improper harvesting and handling practices
- Spoilage microorganisms (e.g., bacteria and fungi)
- Improper preservation and processing techniques
3.5.2. Impact of postharvest loss on nutrition

• Postharvest loss contributes to the reduction of food supply,

and hence, leads to high food prices in the market.
• And high food prices would mean reduced access to food.
• Postharvest loss can be compensated for by increased
production.
• However, minimizing postharvest loss is far more sustainable
than increasing production.
• Improved postharvest practices can contribute to food and
nutrition security in multiple ways.
Cont…

• They can reduce postharvest loss, thereby increasing the

amount of food available for consumption by households.
• Thus, minimizing postharvest losses is one of the strategies to
address the challenges in nutrition-sensitive agriculture in
particular and food and nutrition security in general.
3.5.3. Basic principles of postharvest handling

• Appropriate packinghouse operations (cleaning, washing,

sorting, precooling and packaging)
• Proper transportation (including loading and unloading)
• Proper storage
• Improved preservation techniques (e.g. curing and drying)