WHAT IS POLITICAL THEORY AND WHAT IS ITS RELEVANCE?

What is Political?
When an organization is designed to regulate the whole community, it takes the character of
polity. Polity, therefore, denotes an organization where rules are made and decisions are taken
for the whole community, and authority is exercised over each member of the community.

The term political refers to something that is public as distinguished from private or something
applicable to a limited number of persons. The terms polity, political and politics are derived from
the Greek word ‘polis’ which denoted the ancient Greek city state.

Sheldon S Wolin, in his Politics and Vision 1960 has beautifully summed up the characteristics
of the politics as follows:-

‘Of all the authoritative institutions in society, the political arrangement has been singled out as
uniquely concerned with what is ‘common’ to the whole community. Certain functions such as
national defence, internal order, the dispensing of justice and economic regulation, have been
declared the primary responsibility of political institutions, largely on grounds that the interests
and ends served by these functions were beneficial to all members of the community.’

What is Political Theory?

Definition:-
The term theory stands for systematic knowledge. Political theory stands for systematic
knowledge of a political phenomena. It involves the analytical study of ideas and concepts that
have been central to political thought.

Traditionally, this has taken the form of a history of political thought, focussing on a collection of
major thinkers- from Plato to Marx and a canon of classic texts, an approach once seen as the
defining aspect of the discipline of politics.

As it studies the means and ends of political action, political theory is clearly concerned with the
following types of statements:-

● Empirical statement- Based on observation through sense-experience alone.

● Logical statement - Based on reasoning.
● Evaluative judgement- Based on value judgement

Nature of Political theory:-

Dwelling on the nature of political theory, George Catlin significantly observed that the theory of
politics is significantly divided into political science and political philosophy. Thus, initially it is
important to understand Political science and political philosophy to study the nature of political
theory.

What is Political Science?

Science refers to a means of acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation and
measurement. Its central feature, the scientific method, involves verifying or falsifying
hypotheses by testing them against empirical evidence preferably using repeatable
experiments. The almost unquestioned status which science has enjoyed in the modern world is
based on its claim to be objective and value free and so to be the only reliable means of
disclosing truth. Political science is essentially empirical, claiming to describe, analyze and
explain government and other political institutions in a rigorous and impartial manner. Political
science enjoyed massive support in the 1950s and 60s, especially in the USA. The form of
political analysis used in it was heavily inspired from behaviouralism. Behaviouralism developed
as a school of psychology which, as the name implies, involves the study of observable and
measurable behaviour of human beings. This encouraged political analysts such as David
Easton to believe that political science could adopt the methodology of the natural sciences,
leading to a proliferation of studies in areas like voting behaviour where systematic and
quantifiable data were readily available.

What is Political Philosophy?

The term political philosophy can be used to cover any abstract thought about politics, law or
society. The term philosophy refers to the search for wisdom and understanding. Political
philosophy is more concerned with questions such as how knowledge is acquired and how
understanding is expressed than scientific questions related to revealing the truth.Political
philosophy deals with the 'ideal'.tAccording to Raphael, the fundamental purpose of traditional
philosophy has been the critical evaluation of beliefs: "Philosophy differs from science in that
science seeks explanation while philosophy seeks justification".
There are two main tasks in political philosophy:-
● It is concerned with the critical evaluation of political beliefs, paying attention to both
inductive and deductive forms of reasoning.
● It attempts to clarify and refine the concepts employed in political discourse.

Political theory, Political science and Political philosophy:-

Political science relies only on empirical and logical statements. It is argued that correct
observation and correct reasoning by different persons would lead to the similar conclusion;
hence empirical and logical statements are capable of verification. On the other hand, political
theory cannot be confined to so-called scientific knowledge. It is equally concerned with
determining values which come within the scope of philosophy. Values have a sound logical
structure unless we mistake them for biased statements. Upholders of different ideologies can
be invited to have a dialogue, to have an opportunity to understand each others’ point of view, to
convince each other and probably to agree on certain universal principles to judge the validity of
values. Determination of values is the basis of a sound public policy or decision. Hence, political
theory must comprehend both political science and political philosophy.
Important Schools of Political Theory
The important schools of political theory that have lasted in importance and have stood the test
of time are as follows:-
1) Classical Political Theory
2) Liberal Political Theory
3) Marxist Political Theory
4) Empirical Scientific Political Theory
5) Contemporary Political Theory

Classical Political Theory:-

It starts from the 6th century BC and covers the political ideas of Greeks, Romans, Christian
thinkers and philosophers. Two legendary thinkers, Plato and Aristotle have contributed greatly
to classical political theory. This theory of politics includes the definition of politics, idea of theory
and the practice of philosophy. It believes in ultimate good as well as political good. It believes
the state to be a natural institution formed prior to the individual. The nature of classical political
theory includes:-
● Description- Deals with the description of the political problems of a society of a
particular time period.
● Explanation- Deals with the explanation of the political problem i.e What is the nature of
the problem? And why is society dealing with it in a specific manner?
● Prescription- Deals with finding the solutions of the political problem.
● Evaluation- Deals with understanding the origin, nature and solution to the problem.

Liberal Political Theory:-

This theory was supported by notable thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Cicero,
Hobbes, Lock, Jefferson, J.S Mill and Herbert Spencer.The central idea of this theory is
individualism. It emphasises on the autonomy of individual will. The central features of liberal
political theory are :-
● Talks about individualism and supports spiritual equality for everyone and freedom of
human wish.
● Promotes freedom in every field of life of an individual. That is, it is against dictating the
goals and aspirations of human life and states that humans are free to pursue their
desired fields of expertise in.
● Liberalism created the idea of the rights of an individual. This theory is of the view that
before the emergence of the state, natural rights such as right to life, property and
freedom were given to the individuals.
● Liberalism recognises the state as a man made institution and not a natural institution. It
believes that the state has been established on the basis of individual argument.
● Liberal political theory completely denies the idea of public interest and group
community. It believes that individuals are capable enough to govern themselves and
understand the social, political and economic needs of the society.
Marxist Political Theory:-
The Marxist political theory has been supported by thinkers such as Karl Marx, Lenin, Stalin,
Frankfurt school, Herbert Marcuse. The focus of this theory was to achieve real liberty and
equality for mankind. The important themes of Marxist political theory include class divisions,
revolutions, property relations, class struggles, modes of production etc. Marx believed that the
freedom of an individual can only be attained through revolution. Marxism considers liberalism
to be a biased system which only serves upper classes. On the contrary, Marxist political theory
provides the basis for the establishment of a socialist state where individuals are free.

Empirical Scientific Political Theory:-

In the 20th century, a new branch of political theory emerged in America which came to be
known as Empirical Scientific Political Theory. Max Weber, Graham Wallace and Bently
developed experimental study of political theory. This theory stressed that the study of politics
must be based on facts. After World War 2, the Chicago UNiversity developed new political
theory. The political scientists involved in its formation were Gonsell, David Easton, Charles
Merrium etc. This new political theory connected the study of politics with the behaviour of the
individual and group. The task of this political theory is to formulate and systematize the concept
of science of political behaviour.

Contemporary Political Theory:-

In the 1970s, there was a revival of interests in political theory in Europe, US and other parts of
the world. Post world war 2, the world witnessed the re-emergence of Europe and the debate
between liberalism and marxism acquired a new dimension. As a result, there were many
important innovations in contemporary political theory. Thinkers like John Rawls, Robert Nozick
made notable contributions to this theory.
Under this theory, scholars began to criticize the empiricist and behavioural scholars of science
and claimed that social sciences throw up distinctive problems that cannot be solved by sole
reliance on scientific models. This is because different people may view the problem with
different perspectives.
According to David Held, the contemporary political theory involves four tasks:-
1) Philosophical- Concerned with normative and conceptual framework.
2) Empirical- Concerned with the problem of understanding and explanation of concepts.
3) Historical- It is concerned with examination of key concepts in historical context.
4) Strategic- It is concerned with assessment of where we are and where we are heading. It
is also concerned about the strategy being feasible or not.

Evolution of Political Theory:-

The issues that have held prominence in political theory have changed over time. Classical and
early political theory was mainly concerned with the search for a morally perfect political order
and focussed on questions like the nature and purpose of state. Years later, the rise of the
modern nation state and changes in the economic structure and the industrial revolution gave
rise to new priorities and focus shifted to individualism and liberty of the individual and his
relationship to society and state.Gradually it became important to explain the interrelation
between one concept and the other such as liberty and equality or justice and equality or
equality and property. In response to it, another theory called the Marxist political theory came
into existence. After world war 2, a new kind of empirical political theory emerged which studied
the political behaviour of man and believed in making theoretical conclusions on that basis. In
the 1970s, there was a revival of interests in political theory in Europe, USA and other parts of
the world in response to new contemporary issues.

Relevance of Political Theory:-

Political science and political philosophy play complementary roles in the realm of political
theory. Relevance of political theory may, therefore be sought in both of these areas:-

1) Control of Social Life:-

Scientific analysis of political life enables us to understand and solve the problems of our social
life. Political science enables us to understand the causes of conflicts and violence in society
and gives us insights for preventing their outburst.
Political science helps us to secure development of society from our Human Resources. Political
science guides us to find the remedies of political instability and various types of social crises.

2) Social Criticism and Reconstruction:-

Political philosophy is primarily concerned with right or wrong good and evil in social life. A
galaxy of political philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Mill and St Augustine have
pointed to the prevailing ills in society and they have given their own schemes of social
reconstruction. They give us ample insights into the possible ills of social life and their remedies.
One can draw schemes of social reconstruction on the basis of these insights.
These schemes provide logical grounds for criticizing errors in society and polity.

3) Clarification of Concepts:-
Political philosophy helps us a lot in the diversification of concepts used in analysis of social and
political life. Terms like authority, social class, liberty, equality, justice, democracy etc may be
applied to different schools of thought to indicate different ideas. Political philosophy tries to
determine their precise meaning which should be acceptable to the upholders of different
ideologies. A precise and widely accepted definition of a term enables each thinker to build his
argument on sound footing.

4) Encouragement to Mutual respect and Toleration:-

Political theory encourages a dignified debate between upholders of different points of view.
Andrew Hacker has significantly observed: “Political Theory is a never ending conversation
among theorists. And while the greatest of the debates are never resolved, the criticisms which
the writers make of each other are always most vivid and illuminating… Politics is after all the
most democratic of sciences. The final judgements concerning political reality and the good life
are the responsibility of all who undertake the study of theory.” Debates between political
philosophers inspire us to under each others’ viewpoint. It gives us an opportunity to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of our thought, to be convinced by others and convince others when
the truth is discovered. Political theory generates mutual respect and toleration among us and
prompts us to resolve differences peacefully.
Conclusion:-
Political theory attempts to understand a political phenomena to its core. To do this, it takes the
help of both political science and political philosophy.
The functions of political theory are:-
(a) Description;
(b) Criticism
(c) Reconstruction.
Political science mainly relies on empirical methods, that is the knowledge based on our
practical experience which is supposed to be most reliable, Hence it specializes in 'description'.
Political philosophy being concerned with value-judgment specializes in 'criticism' and
'reconstruction'. Advocates of positivism, neo-positivism (logical positivism) and behaviouralism
wish to confine political theory to the sphere of political science. They argue that evaluative
statements are based on individual or group preferences which differ from individual to
individual, and group to group. There is no reliable method of determining what is right or wrong,
good or bad; one cannot scientifically discover the purpose of the universe or human life. Hence
the questions of value-judgment should be dropped from the purview of political theory
altogether.
However, since the advent of post-behaviouralism (1969) and consequent upon the revival of
political philosophy in the 1970s and 1980s there has been a renewed emphasis on values in
the realm of political theory. It is now argued that value-judgment serves as an essential guide to
social policy. Indifference to value- judgment will leave society in the dark. The emerging
concerns with environmentalism, feminism human rights and social justice for the subaltern
groups, etc. call for exploring the new horizons of value-judgment. If political theory tends to
relinquish this important function, it may be grabbed by some less competent agency. As David
Held (Political Theory Today; 1991; Editor's Introduction) has pointed out: "Taken as a whole,
the tasks of political theory are unquestionably demanding. In the absence of their systematic
pursuit, there is always the danger that politics will be left to the ignorant and self-interested, or
to those simply with a 'will to power'."
Thus all the functions of political theory have now become very important and urgent in the
present-day world where most of our problems are assuming global dimensions and they are
being recognized as the problems of humanity as such.