T.C.

BAHCESEHIR UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTORNICS
ENGINEERING
Ö. BİRİNCİ

24VDC 36W FLYBACK CONVERTER WITH EMC

IMPROVEMENT FOR RAILWAY APPLICATION

MASTER’S THESIS
ÖZKAN BİRİNCİ
BAU 2023

ISTANBUL 2023
 T.C.

BAHCESEHIR UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

24VDC 36W FLYBACK CONVERTER

WITH EMC IMPROVEMENT FOR RAILWAY APPLICATION

MASTER’S THESIS
ÖZKAN BİRİNCİ

THESIS ADVISOR
Asst. Prof. Dr. Nezihe YILDIRAN

ISTANBUL 2023
 T.C.

BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE SCHOOL

...../....../.....

MASTER THESIS APPROVAL FORM

Program Name: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Student's Name and
Surname: ÖZKAN BİRİNCİ

24VDC 36W FLYBACK CONVERTER WITH EMC

Name of The Thesis:
IMPROVEMENT FOR RAILWAY APPLICATION
Thesis Defense Date 12/06/2023

This thesis has been approved by the Graduate School which has fulfilled
the necessary conditions as Master thesis.

…………………

Institute Director

This thesis was read by us, quality and content as a Master's thesis has
been seen and accepted as sufficient.

Title, Name Institution Signature

Asst. Prof. Dr. Nezihe

Thesis Advisor:
YILDIRAN

Asst. Prof. Dr. Cavit

2nd Member Fatih
KÜÇÜKTEZCAN

3rd Member Prof. Dr. M. Emin

(Outside Institution) TACER
 ETHICAL CONDUCT

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and
presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare
that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced
all material and results that are not original to this work.

Name, Last Name: Özkan Birinci

Signature:

iii
 ABSTRACT

24VDC 36W FLYBACK CONVERTER WITH EMC IMPROVEMENT FOR

RAILWAY APPLICATION

Birinci, Özkan

Master’s Thesis, Master’s Program in Electric-Electronic Engineering

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Nezihe Yıldıran

June 2023, 167 pages

Nowadays, switching DC-DC power supplies are widely used in industry. The flyback
converter is at the forefront of the railway industry due to its wide input voltage range
at low powers, input and output isolation, reliability and simplicity of design. Due to
the low efficiency of the flyback converter, soft switching and active clamping
techniques are used to increase the efficiency, which results in high cost.

In this thesis, it is aimed to design a flyback converter with high efficiency according
to literature, low cost according to industry, EMC filtered, DIMMABLE, compliant
with EN 50155 and EN 55015 Railway standards to meet the need for led lighting in
railway systems by using hard switching technique and passive RC snubber. The
designed flyback converter complies with EN 50155 and TS EN 50121 Railway
standards. Flyback converter with DIM feature has 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltage
range, 24 VDC output voltage, 20VDC output voltage in DIM mode, 1.5A output
current, 36W power and approximately 90% efficiency.

Key Words: DC-DC Converter, EMC Filter, Flyback Converter, Railway Application

iv
 ÖZ

24VDC 36W DEMİRYOLU UYGULAMASI İÇİN EMC İYİLEŞTİRMELİ

FLYBACK DÖNÜŞTÜRÜCÜ

Birinci, Özkan

Master Tez, Elektrik ve Elektronik Mühendisliği Master Programı

Danışman: Asst. Prof. Nezihe Yıldıran

Haziran 2023, 167 sayfa

Günümüzde anahtarlamalı DC-DC güç kaynakları endüstride yaygın bir şekilde

kullanılmaktadır. Düşük güçlerde geniş giriş gerilimi aralığı, giriş ve çıkış izolasyonu,
güvenilirlik ve tasarım sadeliği nedeniyle flyback dönüştürücü railway endüstrisinde
ön planda yer almaktadır. Flyback dönüştürücü verimi düşük olması nedeniyle
yumuşak anahtarlama ve aktif kenetleme teknikleriyle verimi yükseltilmektedir. Bu
durum yüksek maliyete neden olmaktadır.

Bu tez çalışmasında sert anahtarlama tekniği ve pasif RC snubber kullanılarak

literature göre yüksek verimli, endüstriye göre düşük maliyetli railway sistemlerinde
led aydınlatma ihtiyacını karşılamak için EMC filtreli, DIMMABLE özellikli, EN
50155 ve EN 55015 Railway standartlarına uygun flyback dönüştürücü tasarımı
amaçlanmaktadır. Tasarlanan flyback dönüştürücü DIM özellikli 77VDC-137.5VDC
giriş gerilim aralığında, 24 VDC çıkış gerilimi, DIM modunda 20VDC çıkış gerilimi,
1.5A çıkış akımı, 36W gücü ve yaklaşık 90% verime sahiptir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: DC-DC Dönüştürücü, EMC Filtresi, Flyback Dönüştürücü,

Demiryolu Uygulaması

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank my thesis advisor Assoc. Prof. Nezihe Yıldıran for
her help in choosing the thesis topic, her support and tolerance during the study
process. I would like to thank my company ERA Elektronik Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. for
providing the necessary opportunities for me to carry out this thesis, and Oğuz Kağan
Barış for his support and help in the thesis study.

I would like to extend my special thanks to my beloved mother Münire Birinci and my
father Mustafa Birinci, who were my biggest supporters and who caused me to have a
very lucky childhood in every material and spiritual aspect.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ETHICAL CONDUCT ............................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iv

ÖZ ................................................................................................................................ v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................... vi

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................... xix

Chapter 1 ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................. 3

1.3 Literature Review ............................................................................................... 3

1.4 Goal of Thesis .................................................................................................. 21

1.5 Thesis Layout ................................................................................................... 23

Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................... 24

2.1 Flyback Converter ............................................................................................ 24

2.2 Flyback Converter Operating Modes ............................................................... 32

2.2.1 Continuous conduction mode .................................................................... 32

2.2.2 Discontinuous conduction mode ................................................................ 39

2.3 Snubber Cell & Clamp ..................................................................................... 46

2.4 Flyback Converter Transformer ....................................................................... 50

Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................... 56

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 56

3.2 Flyback Converter Design Calculation ............................................................ 56

vii
 3.2.1 Design of flyback transformer ................................................................... 57

3.2.2 MOSFET voltage, current and power value calculations .......................... 68

3.2.3 Snubber design calculations....................................................................... 71

3.2.4 Output capacitor value and output ripple calculations............................... 72

3.2.5 Output diode calculation ............................................................................ 74

3.3 Control Detail of LT8316 ................................................................................. 75

3.4 Fyback Converter Circuit Simulation............................................................... 78

3.5 EMC Filter Design ........................................................................................... 82

Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................... 86

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 86

4.2 Input and Output Voltages at 100% (1.5A) Load............................................. 87

4.3 Output Ripple Voltages at 100% Load (1.5A) ................................................. 90

4.4 Input and Output Voltages at 20% Load (300mA) .......................................... 93

4.5 Output Ripple Voltages at 20% Load (300mA) ............................................... 96

4.6 Transformer Secondary and Tertiary Winding Voltages at 100% Load (1.5A)
................................................................................................................................ 99

4.7 Voltage in Secondary and Tertiary Winding of Transformer at 20% Load

(300mA) ............................................................................................................... 105

4.8 PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) ................................................................ 111

4.9 PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) .............................................................. 114

4.10 MOSFET Voltage, Current and Snubber ..................................................... 117

4.10.1 MOSFET voltage, current and snubber at 100% load (1.5A) ............... 118

4.10.2 MOSFET current at 20% load (300mA)................................................ 127

4.11 Output Diode Voltage and Current............................................................... 130

4.11.1 Output diode voltage and current at 100% load (1.5A) ......................... 131

4.11.2 Output diode voltage and current at 20% load (300mA) ....................... 137

viii
 4.12 Input and Output Voltages at 100% (1.5A) Load in DIM Mode ................. 143

4.13 Input and Output Voltages at 20% (300mA) Load in DIM Mode ............... 146

4.14 Voltage Regulations ..................................................................................... 149

4.14.1 Voltage regulation at 100% (1.5A) load ................................................ 149

4.14.2 Voltage regulation at 20%(300mA) load ............................................... 150

4.14.3 Voltage regulation in DIM mode at 100%(1.5A) load .......................... 151

4.14.4 Voltage regulation in DIM mode at 20% (300mA) load ....................... 152

4.15 No-Load Condition....................................................................................... 153

4.15.1 Minimum input voltage (77VDC) output voltage in no load condition 153

4.15.2 Nominal input voltage (110VDC) output voltage at no load................. 154

4.15.3 Maximum input voltage (137.5VDC) output voltage at no load ........... 155

4.15.4 Voltage regulation in no-load condition ............................................... 156

4.16 Thermal Measurements ................................................................................ 157

4.16.1 Thermal measurement under normal conditions ................................... 157

4.16.2 Thermal measurement under high temperature conditions.................... 158

4.16.3 Thermal measurement under low temperature conditions .................... 159

4.17 EMC Tests .................................................................................................... 160

4.18 Efficiency ..................................................................................................... 163

4.19 Railway Systems Industry Product Comparison .......................................... 164

4.20 Flyback Converter Circuit Scheme .............................................................. 165

Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................. 166

REFERENCES......................................................................................................... 168

APPENDICES ......................................................Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.

Appendix A Transforamtor Winding InformationHata! Yer işareti

tanımlanmamış.

Appendix B Material Information and Price .....Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.

ix
Appendix C MOSFET Datasheet ......................Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.

Appendix D Output Diode Datasheet ................Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.

Appendix E Core Datasheet ..............................Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.

x
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLES
Table 1 Flyback Converter Requirements .............................................................. 57
Table 2 American Wire Gauge .............................................................................. 66
Table 3 Transformer Parameters ............................................................................ 67
Table 4 Flyback Converter Efficiency ................................................................. 163
Table 5 Flyback Converter Product Comparison ................................................. 164

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES
Figure 1 Conventional Flyback Converter Circuit Diagram ...................................... 25

Figure 2 Flyback Converter Waveforms ................................................................... 26

Figure 3 Switching Element Conduction Mode ........................................................ 27

Figure 4 Switching Element Cutoff Mode ................................................................ 29

Figure 5 Circuit Diagram of Flyback Converter with Clamp&Snubber ................... 31

Figure 6 Primary Voltage and Current Waveforms of CCM Mode Transformer ..... 33

Figure 7 Secondary Voltage and Current Waveforms of CCM Mode Transformer . 34

Figure 8 Switching Element and Output Diode Waveforms in CCM Mode ............ 36

Figure 9 Primary Voltage and Current Waveforms of DCM Mode Transformer .... 40

Figure 10 Primary Voltage and Current Waveforms of DCM Mode Transformer .. 41

Figure 11 Switching Element and Output Diode Waveforms in DCM mode .......... 43

Figure 12 RC Snubber Circuit of the Flyback Topology .......................................... 48

Figure 13 Clamp Circuit of the Flyback Converter .................................................. 50

Figure 14 Flyback Transformer Structure ................................................................. 51

Figure 15 Transformer Current Flow with Switch On .............................................. 51

Figure 16 Transformer Current Flow with Switch Closed ....................................... 52

Figure 17 Typical Magnetization Graph ................................................................... 53

Figure 18 LT8316 Internal Structure (Analog Devices, 2019) ................................. 76

Figure 19 LT8316 Pin Configuration (Analog Devices, 2019) ................................ 76

Figure 20 LT8316 LTspice Circuit Diagram ............................................................ 78

Figure 21 Ltspice Flyback Converter Output Voltage .............................................. 79

Figure 22 Ltspice MOSFET Drain-Source Voltage .................................................. 79

xii
Figure 23 Ltspice MOSFET Drain-Source Current .................................................. 80

Figure 24 Ltspice Transformer Primer Current ........................................................ 80

Figure 25 Ltspice Output Diode Voltage .................................................................. 81

Figure 26 Ltspice Flyback Converter Output Diode Current ................................... 81

Figure 27 EMC Filter Circuit .................................................................................... 85

Figure 28 Prototype Flyback Converter .................................................................... 86

Figure 29 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Minimum Input Voltage (77VDC) ........................................................................... 87

Figure 30 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ............................................................................ 88

Figure 31 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................................... 89

Figure 32 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ........................................................................ 90

Figure 33 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ........................................................................ 91

Figure 34 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage .................................................................. 92

Figure 35 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at

Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ........................................................................... 93

Figure 36 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at

Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ............................................................................ 94

Figure 37 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................................... 95

Figure 38 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 20% Load

(300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ........................................................ 96

Figure 39 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 20% Load

(300mA) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ........................................................ 97

xiii
Figure 40 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 20% Load
(300mA) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage .................................................. 98

Figure 41 Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ................................................... 99

Figure 42 Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ................................................. 100

Figure 43 Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ........................................... 101

Figure 44 Transformer Tertiary Winding Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at Prototype

Flyback Converter Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ........................................... 102

Figure 45 Transformer Tertiary Winding Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at Prototype

Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ........................................... 103

Figure 46 Transformer Tertiary Winding Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at Prototype

Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ..................................... 104

Figure 47 Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 20% Load

(300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................... 105

Figure 48 Transformer Secondary Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at Prototype

Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ........................................... 106

Figure 49 Transformer Secondary Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at Maximum

(137.5VDC) Input Voltage of Prototype Flyback Converter .................................. 107

Figure 50 Prototype Flyback Converter Tertiary Winding Voltage of Transformer at

20% Load (300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage .................................... 108

Figure 51 Tertiary Winding Voltage of Transformer at 20% Load (300mA) at

Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage of Prototype Flyback Converter ...................... 109

Figure 52 Tertiary Winding Voltage of Transformer at 20% Load (300mA) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage of Prototype Flyback Converter ................ 110

Figure 53 Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage .......................................................................... 111

xiv
Figure 54 Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage .......................................................................... 112

Figure 55 Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage .................................................................... 113

Figure 56 Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) at

Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage .......................................................................... 114

Figure 57 Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) at

Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage .......................................................................... 115

Figure 58 Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage .................................................................... 116

Figure 59 Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage without Snubbers at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ................................................. 118

Figure 60 Prototype Flyback Converter Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) MOSFET Voltage with Snubber Design ............................................ 119

Figure 61 Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Over 40mΩ at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage .......................................................................... 120

Figure 62 Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage without Snubbers at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ................................................. 121

Figure 63 Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage with Snubber Design at

100% Load (1.5A) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ....................................... 122

Figure 64 Prototype Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) Over 40mΩ ......................................................................................... 123

Figure 65 Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage without Snubbers at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ........................................... 124

Figure 66 Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage with Snubber Design at

100% Load (1.5A) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ................................. 125

Figure 67 Prototype Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage at

100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ ................................................................. 126

xv
Figure 68 Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage at
20% Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ ............................................................... 127

Figure 69 Prototype Flyback Converter at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at 20%

Load (300mA) Voltage over 40mΩ ........................................................................ 128

Figure 70 Prototype Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage at 20%

Load (300mA) Voltage over 40mΩ ........................................................................ 129

Figure 71 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................................... 131

Figure 72 Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage at

100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ ................................................................. 132

Figure 73 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................................... 133

Figure 74 Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at

100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ ................................................................. 134

Figure 75 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ................................................................ 135

Figure 76 Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Maximum (137.5VDC) Input

Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ ................................................ 136

Figure 77 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 20% Load (300mA)
at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................................... 137

Figure 78 Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage at

20% Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ ............................................................... 138

Figure 79 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 20% Load (300mA)
at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage ...................................................................... 139

Figure 80 Prototype Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at 20%

Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ ....................................................................... 140

Figure 81 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 20% Load (300mA)
at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage ................................................................ 141

xvi
Figure 82 Prototype Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage at 20%
Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ ....................................................................... 142

Figure 83 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Minimum Input Voltage (77VDC) in DIM Mode .................................................. 143

Figure 84 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Nominal Input Voltage (110VDC) in DIM Mode .................................................. 144

Figure 85 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) in DIM Mode ............................................. 145

Figure 86 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at

Minimum Input Voltage (77VDC) in DIM Mode .................................................. 146

Figure 87 Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at Nominal Input Voltage

(110VDC) in Prototype Flyback Converter DIM Mode ......................................... 147

Figure 88 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) in DIM Mode ............................................. 148

Figure 89 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage Regulation at 100% Load

(1.5A) between 77VDC-137.5VDC Input Voltage Range ..................................... 149

Figure 90 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage Regulation at 20% Load

(300mA) between 77VDC-137.5VDC Input Voltage Range ................................. 150

Figure 91 Output Voltage Regulation at 100% Load (1.5A) between 77VDC-

137.5VDC Input Voltage Range in Prototype Flyback Converter DIM Mode ...... 151

Figure 92 Output Voltage Regulation at 20% Load (300mA) between 77VDC-

137.5VDC Input Voltage Range in DIM Mode of Prototype Flyback Converter .. 152

Figure 93 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at Minimum Input Voltage

(77VDC) in No-Load Condition ............................................................................. 153

Figure 94 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at Nominal Input Voltage

(110VDC) in No-Load Condition ........................................................................... 154

Figure 95 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at Maximum Input Voltage

(137.5VDC) in No-Load Condition ........................................................................ 155

xvii
Figure 96 Output Voltage Regulation of the Prototype Flyback Converter between
77VDC-137.5VDC Input Voltage Range in No-Load Condition ........................... 156

Figure 97 Prototype Flyback Converter Thermal Measurement at 100% Load (1.5A)

at Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) under Normal Conditions ...................... 157

Figure 98 Prototype Flyback Converter Thermal Measurement at 100% Load (1.5A)

at Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) under High Temperature Conditions ..... 158

Figure 99 Prototype Flyback Converter Thermal Measurement at 100% Load (1.5A)

at Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) under Low Temperature Conditions ...... 159

Figure 100 Prototype Flyback Circuit without EMC Filter .................................... 160

Figure 101 Prototype Flyback Circuit with EMC Filter ......................................... 161

Figure 102 Prototype Flyback Circuit with EMC Filter in DIM Mode .................. 162

Figure 103 Flyback Converter Circuit Scheme ....................................................... 165

xviii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS

AC Alternating Current

ACF Active Clamp Flyback

AHB Asymmetric Half Bridge

CCM Continuous Conduction Mode

CMC Current Mode Control

CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

COT Constant Operating Time

DAB Double Active Bridge

DC Direct Current

DCM Discontinuous Conduction Mode

EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility

EMI Electromagnetic Interference

EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility

ESR Equivalent Series Resistance

ESL Equivalent Series Inductance

FFT Fast Fourier Transform

FLC Fuzzy Logic Control

GaN Gallium Nitride

IBC Interleaved Boost Converter

IGBT Insulated Gate, Bipolar, Transistor

LED Light Emitting Diode

xix
MPC Model Predictive Control

PBA Printed Board Assembly

PCB Printed Circuit Board

PFM Pulse Frequency Mode

PI Proportional Integral

PID Proportional Integral Derivative

PV Photovoltaic

PVE Photovoltaic Emulator

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

RCD Resistor, Capacitor, Diode

SiC Silicon Carbide

SMPS Switch Mode Power Supply

THD Total Harmonic Distortion

TVS Threshold Voltage Start Up

ZCS Zero Current Switching

ZVS Zero Voltage Switching

𝐴𝑒 Effective Area

𝐴𝐿 Nominal Inductance

𝐵 Magnetic Flux Density

𝐶𝐿𝑝 Transformer Primary Leakage Inductance Capacitance

𝐶𝑜 Output Filter Capacitor

𝐶𝑂𝑆𝑆 MOSFET Output Capacitance

𝐶𝑠 Snubber Capacitor

xx
𝐶𝑠𝑤 Snubber Test Capacitor

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝐶𝑀 EMC Common Mode Capacitance

𝐷 Duty Cycle

𝑓𝑠 Snubber Ringing Frequency

𝑓𝑠𝑤 Switching Frequency

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑓𝑠𝑤 Maximum Switching Frequency

𝐿𝐶
𝑓𝑐𝑜 LC Filter Cut-off Frequency

𝐸𝑀𝐶
𝑓𝑐𝑜 EMC Filter Cut-off Frequency

𝐻 Magnetic Field Strength

𝐼𝐶𝑜 Output Filter Capacitor Current

𝐼𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑜
Output Filter Capacitor Minimum Current

𝐼𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑜
Output Filter Capacitor Maximum Current

𝐼𝐷 Output Diode Current

𝐼𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 Output Diode Minimum Current

𝐼𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 Output Diode Maximum Current

𝐼𝐷𝑆 MOSFET Drain-Source Current

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐷𝑆 MOSFET Drain-Source Maximum Current

𝐼𝑖𝑛 Flyback Converter Input Current

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 Flyback Converter Output Current

𝐼𝑝 Transformer Primary Current

𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 Transformer Maximum Primary Current

𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 Transformer Minimum Primary Current

xxi
𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 Transformer Primary Ripple Current

𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 Transformer Primary Average Current

𝐼𝑝𝑅𝑀𝑆 Transformer Primary Effective Current

𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 Transformer Pimer Peak Current

𝐼𝑠 Transformer Secondary Current

𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 Transformer Maximum Secondary Current

𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 Transformer Minimum Secondary Current

𝐼𝑠𝑚 Transformer Secondary Decreasing Current

𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 Transformer Secondary Current Peak Value

𝐼𝑠𝑅𝑀𝑆 Transformer Primary Effective Current

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑠𝑤 Minimum Switching Current Limit

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑠𝑤 Maximum Switching Current Limit

𝐼𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 Switching Element Off State Current

𝐿𝑎𝑔 Core Air Range

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑀 EMC Differential Mode Enductance

𝐿𝐿𝐶 LC Filter Inductance Value

𝐿𝑝 Transformer Primary Magnetisation Inductance

𝐿𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑝 Transformer Primary Leakage Inductance

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 Transformer Maximum Primary Magnetisation Inductance

𝐿𝑠 Transformer Secondary Magnetisation Inductance

𝐿𝑡 Transformer Tertiary Winding Magnetisation Inductance

𝑁𝑝 Transformer Primary Winding Number

xxii
𝑁𝑃𝑆 Transformer Primary Winding Coefficient

𝑁𝑠 Transformer Secondary Winding Number

𝑁𝑇 Transformer Tertiary Winding Number

𝑁𝑇𝑆 Transformer Tertiary Winding Coefficient

𝑃𝐷𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 Output Diode Power Loss

𝑃𝑖𝑛 Flyback Converter Input Power

𝑃𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 MOSFET Total Power Loss

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑀𝐶 MOSFET Conduction State Power Loss

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑀𝑠𝑤 MOSFET Switching Power Loss

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 Flyback Converter Output Power

𝑃𝑠 Snubber Power Dissipation

𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆𝑅 Output Filter Capacitor Equivalent Resistance

𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝐷𝑆 MOSFET Internal Resistance

𝑅𝐿 Load Resistance

𝑅𝑠 Snubber Resistance

𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 Current Limiting SENSE Resistor

𝑇 Core Induction (Tesla)

𝑡𝑏𝑡 Backup Time

𝑡𝑓 MOSFET Turn-Off Fall Time

𝑡𝑂𝑁 Switching Element Conduction State

𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 Switching Element Cut-off State

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 MOSFET Off Time Value

xxiii
𝑡𝑟 MOSFET Turn-On Rise Time

𝑠𝑛
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 Snubber Ringing Period

𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 Ringing Period Without Snubbber

𝑡𝑡ℎ MOSFET Conduction Time Limit

𝑉𝑐𝑠 Clamp&Snubber Peak Voltage

𝑉𝐷 Output Diode Voltage

𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 Output Diode Minimum Voltage

𝑡
𝑉𝐷 𝑂𝐹𝐹 Output Diode Cut-Off Mode

𝑉𝐷𝑆 MOSFET Drain-Source Voltage

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝐷𝑆 MOSFET Drain-Source Minimum Voltage

𝑉𝑓 Output Diode Forward Voltage

𝑉𝑖𝑛 Flyback Converter Input Voltage

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑖𝑛 Maximum Input Voltage

𝑛𝑜𝑚
𝑉𝑖𝑛 Nominal Input Voltage

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛 Minimum Input Voltage

𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉𝑀 MOSFET Ringing Voltage at Maximum Input Voltage

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Flyback Converter Output Voltage

𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Output Voltage Ripple

𝑉𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 Transformer Maximum Primary Voltage

𝑉𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 Transformer Minimum Primary Voltage

𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 Transformer Primary Winding Leakage Inductance

𝑉𝑟𝑓 Reflection Voltage

xxiv
𝑉𝑠 Transformer Secondary Voltage

𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 Transformer Maximum Secondary Voltage

𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 Transformer Minimum Secondary Voltage

𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑠𝑤 Switching Element Maximum Voltage Stress

𝑉𝑠𝑤 Switching Element Drain-Soruce Voltage

𝑉𝑠𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 Snubber Ringing Voltage

𝑍𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 Transformer Primary Leakage Inductance Impedance

∆𝐼𝐷−𝑆 Switching Element Drain-Source Current Variation

∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Output Voltage Ripple Variation

∆𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆𝑅
𝑜
Output Filter Capacitor Equivalent Resistance Variation

Ø Magnetic Flux

𝜂 Flyback Converter Efficiency

µ0 Core Magnetic Permeability Coefficient

xxv
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Overview

In electrical or electronic systems, the power supply is the most important

component to provide power to the system. Different DC-DC converter topologies
have been developed to meet the power requirements of electronic systems. Although
different DC-DC converter topologies have been developed in recent years, flyback
topology continues to be popular in the industry today due to its wide input voltage
range, galvanic isolation, multiple output voltages, simplicity, ease of design,
converter efficiency in the range of 70%-80% and relatively low cost requirements.
The working principle of the flyback converter is to isolate the input and output line
using a transformer while converting the input voltage value to a lower output
voltage.The transformer is of vital importance on the converter. The transformer
usually has two windings, while the primary winding is connected to the power supply
and switching element.The secondary winding adjusts the output voltage according to
the turns ratio and transformers with multiple secondary windings can give more than
one output voltage.

With the development of lighting technology, LED luminaires are used today
instead of fluorescent lamps for environmental lighting, office and home ceiling
lighting, vehicle interior and exterior lighting due to low energy, high illumination area
and low cost. In the industry, flyback converter topology is mostly used in the structure
of LED drivers due to long life and cost. By adding DIM feature to the designed
converter, the lighting level can be controlled. LED driver with DIM feature changes
the visual field appearance, saves energy and increases the demand by users by
providing application flexibility.

1
 Cost, power losses and temperature performance play an important role in the
design of the flyback converter. Considering the three factors, it is necessary to
understand the flyback structure well, to estimate the power losses, temperature drops
on the components and the cost. In addition, since the converter is high frequency due
to its structure, the side components are small in size while high frequency causes EMI
problems.

The switching element is switched on and off when current or voltage is applied
to the switching element in the converter. Since the switching time on the switching
element is not an instantaneous period, current and voltage overlap each other, losses
occur on the switching element. Therefore, as the switching frequency increases, the
loss on the switching element increases. This condition is called hard switching.
(Rahman et al, 2021) Soft switching technique is used to reduce switching loss in high
frequency converters. (Rahman et al, 2021) Thus, at high switching frequencies,
converters can be used with small size and low switching losses.

Ringing occurs when the switching element is switched on and off. These
resonances cause EMI problems. Snubber and clamp circuits are used to eliminate the
ringing on the switching element. Snubber circuits are simple, useful, low cost and
easily absorb energy due to the resistance used in its structure. In flyback converter,
snubber and clamp circuits are also used on the output diode according to EMI,
efficiency and thermal problems.

In the flyback transformer, there are losses in the core. Energy accumulates in
the leakage inductance on the transformer and causes voltage fluctuation when the
switching element switches to cut-off mode. Converter efficiency decreases due to
voltage fluctuation. In addition, the leakage inductances in the transformer bring EMI
problems and departure from the safe operating point due to some parasitic elements
in the circuit. In order to reduce the losses on the transformer, it is necessary to estimate
and calculate the parameters close to practice, while the winding of the transformer
windings should be very well wound.

2
1.2 Problem Statement

Nowadays, flyback converters continue to be popular, while the cost increases

to achieve high efficiency. The converter efficiency decreases when hard switching is
performed on the switching element of the flyback converter. In order to increase the
converter efficiency, techniques such as soft switching technique, increasing the
printed circuit board (PCB) layers are applied. Soft switching technique increases the
efficiency by reducing switching losses while active clamp circuits are applied both
on the switching element and on the output diode, which increases the number of
components and brings the cost problem. When a hard switching technique is used in
the converter, the capacitive effects of the switching element, the leakage inductances
of the transformer and other parasitic side components cause a high EMI problem and
the output voltage fluctuation is very high. This damages the load connected to the
converter and makes the converter useless. Generally, DIM converters are not in high
demand in the industry due to cost. There is a high cost to make the converter suitable
for the industry by eliminating the mentioned problems. The high cost reduces the
demand for the converter.

1.3 Literature Review

Switched DC-DC converters are widely used in industry and are used in a variety
of applications. DC-DC converters obtain a constant and regulated DC voltage by
minimizing power loss from a variable DC voltage. DC-DC converters are classified
as insulated and non-isolated. In converters, isolation is created by connecting the input
ground of the converter to the output ground. The converters that are widely used today
and known as conventional converters in the literature are buck, boost, buck-boost and
flyback topologies. In this section, studies on traditional DC-DC converter topologies
are reviewed.

3
 The buck converter is a non-isolated converter. It produces a regulated output
voltage lower than the input voltage. Buck converter has semiconductor switching
element, inductance, diode and filter capacitor. It works with the principle of
discharging the inductance by the load while the source voltage charges the inductance
of the converter. The buck converter has two modes of operation continuous
conduction mode (CCM), discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), and these modes
are determined by the current in the inductance of the converter. In the buck converter
topology, the output voltage level is obtained by controlling the duty ratio of the PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) signal of the buck converter switch. Buck converter LED
drivers are used in wide application areas such as DC motor speed control, regulated
power supplies, television and telephone. (Sevim & Bozkurt, 2021)

The boost converter provides a regulated output voltage higher than the input
voltage. In other words, because the rectified input voltage level is lower than the
output voltage, it works inversely with respect to the buck converter. The boost
converter works with the principle of increasing and releasing the magnetic energy
accumulated in the inductor it has. The boost converter has two operating modes,
continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode. The CCM mode of
the step-up converter is commonly used because of its high efficiency, but the DCM
mode may also be preferred due to the use of small inductors. The boost converter is
commonly used in milliwatt-to-megawatt power conversion applications. (Forouzesh
& Siwakoti, 2017)

The flyback converter is the isolated version of the buck-boost converter.

Therefore, the input ground is isolated from the output ground by a transformer. It is
generally used in applications below 100W and at high frequencies. (Gerstner et al,
2021) Flyback converter has semiconductor switching element, diode, capacitor and
the most important element is transformer. The flyback converter has two operating
modes, continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode, and these
modes are determined by the magnetizing current of the transformer. It is widely used
in daily used electronic devices such as batteries of electric vehicles, chargers,
computer power supplies. (Bektaş et al, 2018)

4
 The performance of the flyback converter is investigated in conduction mode
and noise sources have been identified. The supply connected to the flyback converter
in this study has a maximum of 22VDC, 17mA current and 22mW power. In steady
state analysis it is operated in discontinuous conduction mode and the reasons are
explained (higher efficiency, faster transient response, smaller transformer). Within
the scope of the study, an EMI filter and snubber circuit were designed on the flyback
converter, and the converter was isolated and designed in accordance with certain
safety rules. Noise sources that cause performance degradation of this converter have
been identified and their effects have been reduced. (Mohammed & Nafie, 2015)

Soft start isolated bidirectional full bridge flyback converter for high power
applications is investigated. Within the scope of the study, three different prototypes
with RCD snubber, active compression and flyback snubber circuits proposed in
working condition have been designed, and the designed bidirectional flyback
converter has 48VDC low edge voltage, 360VDC high edge voltage, 1.5kW power
and 25 kHz switching frequency. It has been observed that the efficiency of the
designed insulated bidirectional full bridge flyback converter is between 90-92%. As
a result of the study, it has been reported that the voltage changes caused by the current
difference between the flyback snubber circuit, the current fed inductor and the
transformer can be alleviated. (Wu et al, 2010)

A closed loop flyback converter with 9VDC-24VDC input voltage, 3.3V output
voltage and 1A output current with 100kHz operating frequency has been applied.
Required parameters for flyback converter design have been calculated and simulated
considering that it is recommended for computer power supply units and will be useful
for portable devices that need low voltage requirements. PI (Proportional-Integral)
controller was used in the simulation design. The simulation results were found to be
consistent. (Martin, 2020)

The flyback transducer was analyzed and mathematically modeled, the

transducer was designed according to the parameters suitable for the modeling and
tested with the simulation of the designed transducer. The converter designed has an
input voltage of 50-70VDC, an output voltage of 6VDC, an output current of 0.2A and
a switching frequency of 65kHz. It has been reported that the converter designed by

5
analyzing within the scope of the study can be used for high frequency converters used
in low power applications. (Coruh et al, 2010)

An asymmetric half-bridge (AHB) flyback converter is proposed where the

asymmetric half-bridge flyback topology provides a high margin for the transformer
turn ratio. Active clamp rotation and symmetrical half-bridge rotation steady state and
operating principles analyzes were examined, and the AHB flyback converter has
lower voltage stress than ACF. Experimental studies have been carried out on the
prototype with 19.3VDC output voltage in the 1MHz, 65W, 100-250VDC input range
and it has been observed that the peak efficiency is 96.5% and the system efficiency is
over 93% at 127VDC input voltage, resulting in high efficiency in all input voltage
ranges and high frequency. (Ouyang & Andersen, 2020)

Flyback design is made with M57962L IGBT driver and its performance is
explained. The flyback converter designed using CCM, which is one of the steady-
state states in the study has +15VDC input voltage, -8VDC output voltage, 150 mA
output current, 75kHz switching frequency. The output voltage is analyzed using the
Zener diode and the TL431 regulator separately to the supply circuit of the converter.
It has been reported that the output voltage of the TL431 regulator is 5% better than
the zener diode, and the performance of the flyback converter is sufficient to drive the
IGBT driver. (Kumar & Pachori, 2020)

A study was conducted on the use of SiC MOSFET in high input voltage
controlled power supply design using flyback topology, simulation techniques for SiC
modeling were discussed and it was concluded that the difficulties in design caused
cost increase. An RCD snubber circuit has been used in the flyback converter design,
and the converter has a switching frequency of 80kHz, an input voltage range of 320-
1000VDC, an output voltage of 24VDC, 15VDC and two 5VDC, a total of 4 output
voltages. According to the analysis, SiC MOSFET is recommended for control power
supplies with high input voltage in renewable energy applications. (Jagannath et al,
2020)

The analysis and design of the flyback converter, which gives multiple output
voltages using the flyback topology, is examined. The designed flyback converter

6
provides 220VAC input voltage, 180VDC and 5VDC multiple output voltages. The
flyback converter is proposed to power the Nixie Tube and 5VDC microcontroller,
while the full load analysis is done with calculations for continuous conduction mode
(CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) analysis. Closed-loop control of
the converter is performed using a PI control block with 220VAC rectified input
voltage and 5VDC reference voltage, while for 5VDC output voltage, closed-loop
using a PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) Controller with 2.5 Ω resistive load the
control shows the desired output voltage. (Gupta et al, 2020)

It is explained that SiC MOSFETs are more efficient than Silicon (Si) MOSFETs
due to low transmission and switching losses, by using multi-output flyback converter
designed and using SiC MOSFET due to low power loss. RCD clamp circuit is
designed using steady-state discontinuous conduction mode. The multi-output flyback
converter, designed and simulated in practice, has 250-850VDC input voltage, two
24VDC output voltages, two 1A output currents, 20kHz switching frequency and 24W
output power. The designed converter was simulated and implemented as hardware.
Designed in the 250VDC-850VDC input voltage range, the converter provided
85.14% efficiency at low input voltage and 76.02% at high input voltage. The ripple
voltage of the designed multi-output flyback converter is less than 1% and the output
voltage regulation is reported to be good, while the converter is efficient using SiC
MOSFET and the designed converter is provided for general power units, industrial
fields and aerospace technology. (Nagesha et al, 2015)

A study has been made about the asymmetric half-bridge flyback converter and
it has been emphasized that the control method is clear, simple and reliable by using
hybrid switching technique for the converter. It has been stated that the asymmetric
half-bridge flyback converter has advantages such as fewer components, less cost,
higher power and efficiency, and in the simulation created in this study to evaluate the
theoretical information, the converter has an input voltage range of 90VDC-270VDC,
19VDC output voltage, 0.8566A-3, output current range of 42A, a switching frequency
of 100kHz, and an output power of 65W. The simulation results showed that the hybrid
switching technique proposed in the study can be applied on the flyback converter.
(Chen et al, 2016)

7
 A miniature converter with a frequency of 400kHz and multiple outputs of
5VDC, 15VDC, 5VDC is designed with current mode controlled flyback topology. It
has 22VDC-36VDC input voltage range, -5VDC/0.2A, 15VDC/0.7A, 5VDC/4A
output voltage and current. While the designed flyback converter is experimentally
verified with 70% efficiency, a soft start circuit is applied to reduce the voltage on the
switching element MOSFET. (Chandra et al, 2015)

Owing to the voltage equalization need of battery series, the flyback converter
was designed as a voltage equalizer methodology. Designed for voltage equalization
of four 12V battery series, the flyback converter has 48VDC input voltage, 12VDC
output voltage, 50kHz switching frequency and 100W power. A prototype was built
with two outputs for the converter theoretical analysis and four outputs to validate the
theoretical analysis. The activity stages, waveforms, design parameters and
experimental results of the converter during the voltage stabilization of the battery
series are given. It has been reported from the experimental results that the voltage
stabilization of the battery series is provided by its own voltage stabilization feature in
the converter DCM operating state, while the output voltages of the Flyback converter
in the DCM operating state are balanced. (Costa et al, 2018)

Design information about the flyback power converter, which is designed

according to the high voltage impulse load requirements, is presented, and it is also
used to charge the energy storage capacitor that meets the flyback topology, charging
time and voltage level requirements. Peak current mode and boundary conduction
mode methods are used to charge the energy storage capacitor. In this study, a 5W
high-voltage flyback converter prototype and simulation was made to generate pulses
with 500Hz and 1kHz pulse repetition and 1kV voltage. The simulation results
confirming the designed flyback converter are presented while it is explained that the
efficiency of the flyback converter decreases due to the leakage inductance in the
converter, the winding capacitance delays the charging time, and the leakage
inductance increases the energy level lost when the power level increases. (Ravi et al,
2020)

In this article, it is studied about lossless snubber and flyback converter with base
level transformer. An experimental prototype was built using a bipolar transistor with

8
a voltage of 6V and a current of 900mA. In the converter, the RCD snubber circuit is
analyzed lossless, while at full load, the DCM operates in steady state mode. In the
worst case, it has been observed that the average efficiency is about 69%, the lossless
efficiency is in the range of 63%-75%, and the efficiency measured by RCD is in the
range of 58%-62%. In the tests carried out on the experimental prototype, the
theoretical analysis was confirmed, it was reported that the cost of the base level
transformer was reduced by about 10% of the design cost, and the design is provided
for low-power devices, mobile phone chargers and energy-saving applications. (Zhao
et al, 2012)

An analysis is made by constructing a state space model using the transfer

function while the flyback converter is operating in continuous conduction mode.
Steady-state continuous conduction mode was used for design analysis, while the mean
was modeled using converter, small AC signal modeling, power circuit and control
parameters. While the designed flyback converter has 110-250VDC input voltage
range, 48VDC output voltage, 50kHz switching frequency and 250W output power, it
has been reported that the converter is unstable in continuous conduction mode in the
simulation results. (T. Halder, 2020)

Simulations were made on the boost converter topology and transferred to the
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) in practice. High efficiency is achieved by applying a
high frequency (up to 500 kHz) GaN and SiC based DC-DC boost converter, ZVS
(Zero Voltage Switched) two-phase boost converter topology. By investigating the
feasibility of interspersed ZVS boost converters providing high frequency operation
with a power density exceeding 10kW/dm3, it was found that careful design, especially
thermal considerations, is required for the converter to achieve high power density.
Despite simulations suggesting that it is possible to achieve high power density by
experimentally designed, simulated, and validated the converter, problems have been
identified that limit the output power of the converter. (Zimoch et al, 2019)

A soft-switching boost converter with a new simple passive lossless suppressor

is proposed, offering the advantages of a minimum number of components, low cost,
and low voltage stress on the switch. It is seen that the proposed converter has better
efficiency and EMI values than other boost converters while experiments have been

9
made with the 220W prototype and it has been reported that the efficiency of the
converter is 3% better than the efficiency of conventional boost converters. (Shamsi et
al, 2012)

The boost converter, which converts 3.3VDC input voltage to 5VDC output
voltage, is provided for use with mobile devices. The converter with Soft-Start feature
has 100mA output current, 1MHz switching frequency, and the switching frequency
is quite high. The control of the proposed step-up converter consists of a block that
controls the on and off state of the switch. (Mo et al, 2017)

A new design approach is presented that provides very high conversion

efficiency in low voltage, high power isolated boost DC-DC converters. Detailed test
results of the 1.5-kW full-bridge reinforced dc-dc converter confirm the theoretical
analysis and show very high conversion efficiency while worst case efficiency at
maximum load and minimum input voltage is 96.8% while the maximum efficiency
of the proposed converter is 98%. It is recommended for use in fuel cell applications.
(Nymand & Andersen, 2010)

A study has been made about the Interleaved Boost Converter (IBC) topology
and it is recommended for renewable energy applications. Interleaved Boost Converter
has advantages over traditional book converter, such as high efficiency, low input
current ripple, electromagnetic emission, high voltage boost, low output voltage ripple
and low switching loss. Within the scope of the study, three interspersed amplifier
transducers, uncoupled, coupled and reverse coupled, were designed, analyzed and
simulated. The simulation results of all three converters were compared and it was
observed that the Coupled converter reduced the current fluctuations compared to the
non-coupled inductors, while the observations made that the IBC gave low input
current fluctuation for fuel cell applications. (Rahavi et al, 2012)

Boost converter design, simulation and experimental prototype were made for
use in PV module applications, and two separate controllers were used to control the
duty cycle of the designed converter. The output voltage of the converter was
controlled using Proportional-Integral and Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) in the
converter. The input voltage of the designed boost converter is 21VDC, the output

10
voltage calculated according to the equations is 24VDC, the simulation result is
24.7VDC, and the experimental prototype is 28VDC.It has been observed that there is
little difference between the experimental prototype results and the simulation results,
but it has been reported that the FLC controlled transducer has better performance and
can respond with high speed and accuracy compared to the PI controlled transducer.
(Mohamed et al, 2016)

The controller was designed and simulated by modeling the boost converter for
use in renewable energy applications. A Proportional-Integral controller is designed
so that the converter, which is modeled by using the DC-DC boost converter, small
signal analysis and transfer function, can accept the load change and give a constant
output voltage. The PI controller root positioning method was used, and it was
presented that the closed loop performance of the PI controller boost converter
designed with the root position method by performing controller simulation in the
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment is better than the closed loop performance of the
uncontrolled boost converter. It has been reported that the PI controller boost converter
designed with the Root Position Method improves the system response and the
designed controller can be used in different applications. (Shadoul et al, 2017)

DC-DC step-up converter is designed and it is proposed to connect the designed

converter to the PV system for maximum power point monitoring. Soft switching is
used for continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode while
steady-state situations are analyzed and the designed converter load is simulated by
changing it to 12kW, 200kW and 500kW. In the simulation results, it has been
observed that the converter works well and it is reported that the output voltage
changes of the converter can be solved with the inverter control strategy. (Hasaneen &
Mohammed, 2008)

A new Booster Interleaved Boost converter with high efficiency and low voltage
stress has been proposed by conducting a study on DC-DC boost converter for
renewable energy system fuel cell and photovoltaic system applications. Interspersed
converter structure is used to reduce output voltage fluctuations and input current
fluctuations. The proposed converter combines a flyback converter with switched
capacitors, the flyback converter is used to avoid high duty ratio and expand the

11
amplifier gain of the boost converter. Continuous conduction mode is used by
performing steady-state analysis and it is reported that continuous conduction mode is
more suitable than discontinuous conduction mode. An experimental prototype has
been made and analyzed while the designed Boost converter has 24VDC input voltage,
200VDC output voltage, 50kHz switching frequency and 200W power. Experimental
results are reported to verify the analysis and design of the designed transducer,
observing that the duty cycle of the transducer is low and the travel time is short in the
prototype results. (Ling et al, 2015)

A 175W multi-output SMPS is modeled and simulated by examining the power

quality of the multi-output forward boost switched-mode power supply and calculating
the comprehensive design parameters of the advanced boost converter. In the study,
the input voltage changes of the modeled converter, the effect of the load line change
on the converter and its performance were evaluated. Output voltage is controlled
using Proportional-Integral (PI) by making closed loop control. The investigated
forward boost converter is 220Vrms 50Hz input voltage, 5VDC, 12VDC, -5VDC, -
12VDC output voltages, 18A, 6A, 0.3A, 0.8A output currents, respectively. It has
175W output power and 50kHz switching frequency. In the presented advanced boost
converter, it is stated that the total harmonic distortion (THT) input current drops to
10% at 50% load and the supply voltages are in the range of 170V- under all operating
conditions at full load, while the output voltage fluctuations are in the order of 270V,
and output voltage fluctuations are in the order of 2%. (Singh et al, 2011)

A boost converter that can start at the mean threshold voltage has been designed.
The threshold voltage initiation (TVS) for the designed transducer is examined, the
transducer is fabricated, tested, and the results are presented. This converter is
designed with CMOS (Complementary metal oxide semiconductor) process, also the
converter has a fluctuating input voltage range of 0.15VDC – 0.9VDC, output voltage
of 1.2VDC and load current range of 0.1mA – 1mA. The peak current control of the
converter works in discontinuous conduction mode, reducing the switching loss at low
loads, and it is stated that the switching frequency works depending on the load in
PFM (pulsed frequency mode) control, and the switching frequency increases as the
load value increases. As a result of the study, the designed converter results are

12
reported as 700kHz and 15kHz, respectively, with the highest and lowest switching
frequency, 83% efficiency and 2% output ripple voltage. (Sze et al, 2008)

Model predictive control (MPC) strategy for the boost converter used in various
applications such as energy storage systems, solar energy systems has been examined.
The goal of the MPC strategy is to formulate a one-step prediction of behavior
problems to manage the converter. With this strategy method, the inductor current is
designed and referenced. The MPC created in the study has a 10VDC input voltage
and a switching frequency of 20kHz. It has been reported that the converter plays an
active role in maintaining the steady state operating point when the system parameters
and resistive load are changed between 50% and 200% by using the observer to change
the system dynamics within the scope of the study. (Cheng et al, 2016)

The controller is designed for boost converter, resistor load and unknown
external input voltage and observer-based boost converter is designed. The designed
boost converter has 6VDC input voltage, 200kHz switching frequency and 4W output
power. It is stated that the controller of the designed boost converter is asymptotically
stable in closed loop, it is experimentally modeled and tested against input voltage and
load uncertainties. It has been reported that the controller and boost converter designed
according to the test results are resistant to variable input voltages and load changes
while the controller design presented in this study is recommended for buck and buck-
boost topologies. (Oucheriah & Guo, 2013)

In this article, buck converter topology is designed, modeled and simulated for
LED driver design. The buck converter designed in the study has 15VDC input
voltage, 10.2VDC output voltage, 25kHz switching frequency and 700mA average
output current. In the circuit presented for the designed and modeled buck converter
topology, MOSFET application was made instead of diode. System use of MOSFET,
it aims to increase the system efficiency to 5% and above. The converter has been
simulated closed loop and open loop. It has been reported that the closed loop gives
more accurate results when the closed loop and open loop data are compared in the
simulation results. (Deekshitha & Shenoy, 2017)

13
 The lower limits of the power conversion that occurs when the Buck converter
is used as a voltage regulator and the feasibility of the lower power voltage regulator
source are examined, and the feasibility of the Buck converter is examined by using
the capacitor, inductor criteria and CMOS parameters. In the study, comparison and
benchmarking were made using 0.50μ and 0.18μ CMOS Standard technology
specifications, and the buck converter design was made using 0.50μm standard CMOS.
The buck converter has 3.3VDC input voltage, 1.65VDC output voltage, 250mA
output current, 1.023W input power, 0.417 transmit power, 400MHz operating
frequency and 41.33% efficiency. It has been reported that the buck converter designed
within the scope of the study cannot be used in low power voltage regulation
applications when the parameters of large inductance values. (Zamora-Mejía et al,
2016)

In order to increase the heavy load efficiency, buck converter with heavy load
mode and baby-buck mode buck converter is recommended in order to increase the
light load efficiency. In order to reduce the switching loss, the proposed converter light
load discontinuous conduction mode and constant operating time (COT) control are
combined. As a result of the experiments, the designed converter has 5VDC input
voltage, 1.2VDC output voltage, 10-700mA output current range, 14.6-250kHz
operating frequency range and 70-80.6% efficiency; converter works fine in both
modes. (Lin et al, 2020)

A controller was designed for linear and non-linear buck converters, and the
controller designed for buck converter was designed using PID control technique in
order to regulate the output voltage by simulating. The desgined converter has 48VDC
input voltage, 10VDC output voltage and 53kHz operating frequency while the buck
converter whose controller is designed operates in continuous conduction mode. The
PID controller design and linear and non-linear models of the closed-loop buck
converter system were simulated and tested in three different ways using the
simulation input voltage variation, reference voltage variation and output load
variation parameters. It is proposed to follow with zero steady-state error and be
implemented for a buck converter. (Kumar et al, 2021)

14
 Digital voltage mode PI controller design for buck converter in digital control
systems is examined, converter and controller are modeled, designed, simulated and
experimentally analyzed on prototype. The converter designed within the scope of the
study has 24VDC input voltage, 12VDC output voltage, 3A output current, 36W
output power and 200kHz switching frequency.The converter designed within the
scope of the study has 24VDC input voltage, 12VDC output voltage, 3A output
current, 36W output power and 200kHz switching frequency while It has been reported
that the designed converter operates in continuous conduction mode with higher
linearity than the boost converter. The converter designed in this study is designed as
an asynchronous buck converter due to the temperature factor while the designed
control system has a converter, a current and a voltage sensor. The transfer function of
the designed transducer was evaluated using AC-sweep analysis while within the
scope of the study, it has been reported that mathematical analysis is important for the
design of the system, compensator design and mathematical calculations for correct
system indentation, and aggressive controllers have a faster conversion response in the
change of load parameters over time. (Suskis & Nikonorov, 2018)

The internal current loop of the buck converter is investigated with the digital
average current mode control (CMC) technique, and a discrete time frame is proposed
for the analysis of current loop instability and current loop controller setting in digital
environment. The buck converter prototype was made within the scope of the study
and designed with a CMC controller using a TMS320F28335 microcontroller from
Texas Instruments, the buck converter has an input voltage range of 3-6VDC, an
output voltage of 1.5V and an operating frequency of 200kHz. From the experimental
analysis results, it works in accordance with the proposed analysis, the FFT of the
inductor current contains harmonics and is unstable in the waveform, the current loop
is limited by the applied input voltage, and the CMC can be used for steady-state
analysis for DC-DC converters. (Rao et al, 2020)

It is proposed to calculate and design passive components of buck converter,

capacitor, output resistor and inductor for use in Photovoltaic Emulator (PVE)
applications. The buck converter has a 20kHz switching frequency and a 1% output
ripple factor, which is designed to ensure that the proposed converter operates

15
smoothly in continuous conduction mode and has a lower output voltage ripple factor
than the system specifications. It has been observed that the buck converter designed
with the passive components calculated within the scope of the study is positioned
above zero at the minimum inductor current level and the inductor current is above
zero and works smoothly in the continuous conduction mode, and it has been reported
that the designed buck converter can keep the output voltage ripple factor below 1%
and the system is consistent. (Ayop et al, 2020)

A buck converter design and simulation has been made using PI with variable
input voltage and output load, low-order output voltage fluctuating peak. The buck
converter designed in the study has 12VDC input voltage, 5VDC output voltage and
100kHz switching frequency. The buck converter designed in the study has 12VDC
input voltage, 5VDC output voltage and 100kHz switching frequency while open and
closed loop continuous conduction mode interrupted conduction mode analyzes were
performed. It has been observed that the buck converter, designed and simulated within
the scope of the study, works in accordance with the changes in the duty cycle
parameters, input voltage and load resistance when the capacitance and inductance
values are kept constant. (Shinde et al, 2018)

A zero current switching (ZCS) semi-resonant buck converter is proposed for

use in high power applications and the parameters of the buck converter are calculated
mathematically and simulated in a computer environment for testing. The control of
the proposed converter is semi-resonance and pulse frequency modulation control
instead of the pulse width modulation control of the traditional buck converter, and the
buck converter recommended within the scope of the study has 120VDC input voltage,
80VDC output voltage, 5A output current, 400W power and 40kHz operating
frequency. The efficiency of the designed buck converter is 96.3% in the simulation
results and it is reported that it is 10-15% higher than conventional buck converters,
while it is also said that the proposed converter can be used in airplanes, electric
vehicles and scooters. (Farrakhov et al, 2020)

The output parameters of the buck converter operating in discontinuous

conduction mode with pulse frequency modulation (PFM) control are examined and
formulas are proposed for the estimation of the output parameters of the buck

16
converter. The current source approach and voltage source approach have been used
to estimate the output parameters of a PFM controlled buck converter operating in
DCM mode, and it has been reported that it is an accurate way to measure the spectral
form of the output voltage fluctuation without requiring technical and detailed
knowledge of the converter's design. Within the scope of the study, formulas designed
and found about current and voltage source approaches to estimate output parameters
in DCM mode were analyzed and a comparison was made with the output spectrum of
a standard 2.25MHz, 600mA buck converter from Texas Instruments. The designed
buck converter has 4.2VDC input voltage, 1.8VDC output voltage and 2.25MHz
operating frequency. As a result of the analysis of the formulas designed and found in
the study, it has been reported that low-power systems can help to predict the power
supply noise parameters. (Tao & Fayed, 2012)

Comprehensive analysis and design of the buck converter for photovoltaic

applications is proposed, and the simulation and experimental prototype of the buck
converter, which has been analyzed and designed, is made. Buck converter fixed input
voltage 80VDC and 20kHz switching frequency with a maximum output power of
164W and 60% converter efficiency has been found, and it has been reported that the
losses on the MOSFET used as the switching element in the converter design and the
diode used in the converter design reduce the system efficiency. (Masri et al, 2012)

In this article, a constant current buck converter is designed for LED driving
application. The designed converter was analyzed and simulated in the specified
topology, and an experimental prototype with dimming was made. The converter
designed in the study has 16VDC input voltage, 300mA output current and 500kHz
switching frequency. In the experimental results, it has been reported that the
simulation and prototype of the converter are compatible, the dimming level shows the
correct result by adjusting the duty cycle when the pulse width modulation (PWM)
signal is changed, and the converter provides a constant output current of 300mA when
the output voltage is changed. (Mrabet et al, 2020)

This article proposes a new bidirectional DC-DC converter application. The

converter proposed in the study has more boost-down voltage gains than the
bidirectional buck-boost converter used in the literature. In addition, it has been

17
suggested that the average value of the switch current is lower than that of the
bidirectional buck-boost converter under the same electrical conditions as the
bidirectional buck-boost converter. Experimental waveform analysis and steady-state
analysis were performed and it was observed to be compatible. A prototype circuit
with 14VDC input voltage, 42VDC output voltage, 50kHz switching frequency and
4.7A output current was used to determine the performance accuracy of the dual
battery system used on the automobile. At full load, the boost mode efficiency is 92.7%
and the down mode efficiency is 93.7%. The measured efficiency range is 92.7%–
96.2% in boost mode, 93.7%–96.7% in downgrade mode. It is more efficient than the
traditional bidirectional Buck/Boost converter. (Yang & Liang, 2012)

Baars et al. reported the design of three-phase double active bridge (DAB)
topology and buck-boost topology for use in railway applications. There is also
discussion about auxiliary inductors and hard pull mode to expand the soft switching
region using soft switching. In order to reduce the losses in the system, the parameters
are calculated and tested in the parameters determined while a prototype is made
according to these parameters, resulting in an output power of 80 kW and an efficiency
of 95.6%. (Baars et al, 2014)

A four-switch buck-boost converter has been applied for a high-current power

supply, and the designed four-switch buck-boost converter has an input voltage range
of 6.5-36VDC, an output voltage of 12VDC, a switching frequency of 300kHz and
maximum output power of 60W. It has been reported that the switching frequency is
proportional to the power losses in the designed circuit. The converter is designed for
printed circuit board (PCB) applications, and a four-layer printed circuit board is
designed to achieve high output current and an experimental prototype is made and the
maximum efficiency of the converter in the measurement results is 99% at 1.1A output
current and 97.2% at 4.5A output current. (Brusey, 2021)

A buck-boost converter has been proposed, which produces a negative output

voltage with a low duty cycle and outputs a lower output voltage than the input voltage.
The proposed converter has 1200VDC input voltage, -940VDC output voltage and
200kHz switching frequency by using elements with buck converter topology, applied
to buck-boost topology and formed by switching element MOSFET, diode, inductor

18
and output capacitor. The proposed buck-boost converter was compared with the buck
converter analysis and simulation. Within the scope of the study, analysis and
simulation results reported that when the switching frequency of the traditional buck
converter and the proposed buck-boost converter are changed, the traditional buck
converter shows better efficiency and performance, and is also suitable for use in the
proposed buck-boost converter line drivers and receiver applications. (Soheli et al,
2018)

Sunkara and Kondrath, presented the design procedure of DC-DC Buck-Boost

converter with PWM control, bidirectional and reverse output operating in continuous
conduction mode and verified by simulation. The buck-boost converter designed in the
study operates at 24VDC±4VDC input voltage, -15VDC output voltage, 1-3A output
current and 100kHz switching frequency in buck mode, while it operates at -15VDC
input voltage, 24VDC output voltage and 1A output current in boost mode. The total
power of the designed buck-boost converter is 45W. Within the scope of the study, it
has been reported that the designed converter has an efficiency between 89-96.5% and
the efficiency of the converter can be reduced by using anti-parallel power diodes in
the study. (Sunkara & Kondrath, 2013)

A simple buck-boost LED driver is presented for battery-powered led array

applications, and in order to increase the efficiency of the buck-boost converter, the
converter can be operated in two different modes, buck and boost, by soft switching
on the switching element. The offered converter has 12VDC input voltage, 32VDC
output voltage, 100kHz switching frequency and 26W output power. An experimental
prototype of the proposed converter has been made and tested, with the converter
having an efficiency of 90% at rated load and with the input diode, while its efficiency
is 93.1% at full load and without the input diode. In the study, it was understood in the
experimental results that the converter is suitable for practical use and can be used in
applications where high efficiency and various colored LEDs are selected. (Pouladi et
al, 2019)

A Zero Voltage Source (ZVS) single-switch buck-boost converter designed for

photovoltaic (PV) applications is presented, and the proposed converter is used to
regulate the voltage from the PV module and convert it to output voltage. The

19
converter simulation proposed in the study and the prototype made converter after the
simulation have 36VDC input voltage, 200VDC output voltage, 240W output power
and 50kHz switching frequency. It has been reported that the converter designed with
ZVS soft switching without using auxiliary switching elements in the converter design
and designed with the converter amplified can be used in PV applications by finding
that the desired and regulated output voltage values are correct. (Kiran & Ezhilarasi
2015)

This article presents the mathematical modeling and design of bidirectional

DC/DC buck-boost converter for use in electric vehicle applications. In the study, the
converter designed by simulating the proposed converter using a proportional-integral
(PI) controller has 200VDC input voltage, 350VDC output voltage, 40kHz switching
frequency and 1.5kW output power. It was reported that the converter, which was
designed and simulated in the parameters determined within the scope of the study, is
suitable for electric and hybrid vehicle applications. (Vacheva et al, 2019)

Si and GaN structured switching elements of the integrated double buck-boost

converter designed for use in LED applications have been investigated. The designed
integrated double buck-boost converter has 220Vrms input voltage and 58.4VDC
output voltage while in the study, power MOSFET and GaN transistor, which are two
different switching elements in Si structure, were compared on the converter and three
different switching elements added to the converter were tested at switching
frequencies ranging from 50-150kHz. As a result of the switching elements tested and
compared on the converter within the scope of the study, it has been reported that Gan-
based switching elements operate at lower operating temperatures and are 5% more
efficient than Si-based switching elements. (Duarte et al, 2017)

A transformerless single-switch buck-boost converter is designed and

experimentally simulated while the input voltage of the designed converter is 11VDC,
the output voltage is 26VDC in the step-up condition and the output voltage is 10VDC
in the step-down condition. The converter designed by examining steady-state
continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode operates in
continuous conduction mode. In the simulation results of the converter designed within
the scope of the study, it has been reported that the voltage gain is higher than other

20
conventional converters (eg conventional buck-boost converter, ZETA, CUK and
SEPIC) and is suitable for applications such as LED drivers and electric vehicles.
(Magar et al, 2018)

The above studies have been reviewed and in this thesis, a high efficiency
Flyback converter design in accordance with EN 50155, TS EN 50121 and IP5K1
standards will be presented.

1.4 Goal of Thesis

In this thesis the scope of this thesis, a DC-DC flyback converter with 77VDC-
132VDC input voltage range, 24VDC output voltage, 1.5A output current, 36W
power, EMC filter, DIMMABLE feature, EN 50155 and EN 50121 railway standards
has been designed to meet the lighting needs of railway systems. EN 50155 standard
is required for railway applications-electronic devices used in rail vehicles. EN 50121-
3-2 standard is required for electromagnetic compatibility for electronic devices used
in railway applications.

According to 50155 standard requirements, vehicles in railway applications use

batteries up to 110VDC to save weight and volume. However, many systems inside
the railway vehicle require 12VDC and 24VDC input voltage. The main task of the
DC-DC converter in the systems in the vehicles in railway applications is to convert
110VDC to 12VDC or 24VDC, while increasing 12VDC and 24VDC to 110VDC. The
nominal input voltage values specified in the standard are 24VDC, 28VDC, 36VDC,
48VDC, 72VDC, 96VDC, 110VDC, but the recommended values in the standard are
24VDC, 72VDC and 110VDC. The EN50155 standard specifies ±30% input voltage
variation including voltage ripple. The converter should have a minimum input voltage
of 77VDC and a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC at 110VDC nominal input
voltage. In this case, the converter with a nominal input voltage of 110VDC must be
designed in such a way that no damage or malfunction occurs in the voltage range of
77VDC and 137.5VDC.

21
 According to the 50155 standard requirements, the operating temperature
classes vary. Temperature classes OT1 -25°C to +55°C and OT2 -40°C to +55°C apply
to equipment in passenger compartments and driver's cab with a reference permanent
temperature of 25 °C. Temperature classes OT3 -25°C to +70°C and OT4 -40°C to
+70°C apply to equipment in cabins/cabins with a reference permanent temperature of
45 °C. Classes OT5 and OT6 are applicable for PBA (Printed Board Assembly) in a
sub-rack or in an enclosure for semiconductor drive units or combustion engine control
units when required due to the internal enclosure temperature. The interior lighting
device of the railway vehicle is in the interior passenger compartment of the vehicle,
i.e. OT1 and OT2 temperature class, but the DC-DC flyback converter will be installed
in the panel section of the cabins in the passenger compartment. For this reason, the
flyback converter designed within the scope of this thesis is designed for OT4
temperature class.

According to EN 50121-3-2 standard requirements, the electromagnetic effects

of the electronic device shall be arranged in such a way as to minimize the
electromagnetic effect of the electronic equipment of the rolling stock. In EN 50121-
3-2 standard, there should be no noise at frequencies between 150kHZ-500kHz at db
higher than 99 dBμV peak and no noise at frequencies between 500kHz-30MHz at db
higher than 93 dBμV peak.

In the design of the flyback converter, it is designed to achieve higher

efficiency than the literature by using a simple snubber circuit and without using an
active clamp circuit, minimising switching losses, using a double-layer PCB board,
reducing the output voltage fluctuation while performing hard switching. It is aimed
to increase user demand compared to other railway power supplies due to its low cost,
DIMMABLE feature, IP5K1 protection (protection against dust and dripping water)
and high efficiency. In addition, it is aimed to present a design approach by simulating
the selection of critical components in the design of flyback converters, estimating the
power and heat losses that may occur, and providing low-cost, reliable and long-lasting
products suitable for the industry.

22
1.5 Thesis Layout

General information about the flyback converter is given in Chapter 1 in the

thesis while designing a low-cost flyback converter within the scope of the thesis.
Afterwards, a problem statement was made and literature research and literature
follow-up were carried out. During the literature research, the usage areas and
applications of the flyback converter are stated and the purpose of the thesis is
mentioned.

In Chapter 2, the working principle, operating modes and theoretical

component formulae of the flyback converter are given. Suppression cell, transformer
design, switching element and diode characteristics are mentioned.

In Section 3, the details of the proposed design are given. Converter

parameters, transformer design, switching element and diode selection, snubber
design, EMI filter design, information about the integrated used, LTspice circuit
simulation and circuit diagram are given. Power loss estimation is made for the
elements used in the converter design.

In Section 4, converter prototype test details and test results are given.

In Section 5, the test results of the prototype flyback converter are presented
and recommendations are given.

23
 Chapter 2

Theoretical Background

2.1 Flyback Converter

Among the switched DC-DC converter topologies, the Flyback converter

occupies a large place in the industry. Flyback converter has become a popular and
distinguished topology today due to its simple structure, low cost, small component
components, galvanic isolation, versatile applications, wide input range value and
wide usage area. The flyback converter is typically used for applications in the 20W-
200W power rating range, while it is used in industry for applications below 100W-
150W. The use of an output inductor in the flyback converter structure has a lower
cost and the losses in the converter are at lower levels compared to other topologies.
In this case, the changes in the load section are more efficient than the forward
converters. Another important feature of the flyback converter is that it can provide
multiple output voltages. (Kamil, 2007) The flyback converter is an isolated version
of the typical buck-boost converter topology. The input and output sections of the
converter are isolated while the transformer is energized when the switching element
of the converter is in the conduction state. The flyback converter has many advantages
as well as disadvantages. The transformer that the converter has has leakage effects
when stray effects are neglected, the voltage stress and resonance of the switching
element are high. Due to the high voltage stress, it is necessary to use a switching
element that can operate at high voltage levels for the design. In this case, the converter
design results in high cost. In addition, high voltage stress and ringing cause the
transmission loss problem and reduce the converter efficiency. (Pesonen, 2014) The
feature that distinguishes the flyback converter from the buck and boost converter is
that it has a transformer that provides isolation between the input and output voltage
and is used for energy storage. The flyback converter typically consists of a switching
element (MOSFET), transformer, diode and filter capacitor. Fig. 1 shows the

24
conventional circuit diagram of the Flyback converter topology. The elements in the
circuit diagram are considered ideal.

Figure 1. Conventional Flyback Converter Circuit Diagram

In the conventional flyback converter circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1, 𝑉𝑖𝑛

supply voltage, 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑟 transformer primary current, 𝑁𝑝 primary winding number, 𝑁𝑠
transformer secondary winding number, 𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑟 transformer primary voltage, 𝑆𝑤
switching element MOSFET, 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 transformer secondary voltage, 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
transformer secondary current, 𝑉𝐷 the output diode voltage, 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 the output filter
capacitor, the output current of the 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 converter, the load at the output of the 𝑅𝐿
converter, and the output voltage of the 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 represents converter.

25
 Fig. 2 shows the waveforms generated by the switch of the Flyback converter
in the turn on and off state.

Figure 2. Flyback Converter Waveforms

In Fig. 2, waveform I indicates the voltage level of the switching element,

waveform II 𝑉𝑠 the secondary voltage, 𝑉𝐷 symbol output diode voltage, waveform III

26
𝐼𝑝 the current in the primary winding of the transformer, 𝐼𝑠 the current in the secondary
winding of the transformer.

The current in the primary winding of the transformer and the magnetic flux
increase when the switching element of the flyback converter switches to the
conduction state. Fig. 3 shows the circuit diagram in which the switching element of
the flyback converter circuit works in conduction.

Figure 3. Switching Element Conduction Mode

As the magnetic flux in the primary winding increases, energy is stored in the
transformer and the magnetizing inductance of the transformer is used to store the

magnetic energy. Depending on the magnetization inductance (𝐿 𝑇𝑅𝐹𝑝 ) in the primary

winding of the transformer, the magnetizing current or the current occurring in the
primary winding are shown in the Eq. 2.1 and the 𝐿𝑝 indicates the magnetising
inductance of the secondary winding of the transformer.

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑝 = (𝑡 − 0) 2.1
𝐿𝑝 1

27
 The maximum primary winding current on the transformer when the switching
element is open is shown in Eq. 2.2 below and 𝑉𝑠 indicates the secondary voltage of
the transformer.

𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡 2.2
𝐿𝑝 1

Since the secondary winding of the transformer is in the opposite direction with
respect to the primary winding, the diode used in the flyback circuit is reverse
polarized and negative voltage accumulates on it. In addition, due to the reverse
polarity of the diode, energy transfer is not provided from the primary to the secondary
of the transformer of the flyback circuit. The current to flow over the load is provided
by the output filter capacitor. (R. Kanthimathi & J. Kamala, 2015)

In order for the transformer core not to reach the saturation stage due to the
stored energy, an air gap is left and the energy accumulated in the core is accumulated
in the air gap. The primary and secondary windings of the transformer are in different
directions. In this case, current passes through the primary winding while no current
passes through the secondary winding.

As soon as the switching element turns off, the energy, current and magnetic
flux levels in the primary winding decrease to zero. Fig. 4. shows the flyback converter
circuit when the switching element is in the off state.

28
 Figure 4. Switching Element Cutoff Mode

The polarity of the transformer changes due to the magnetic flux decrease and
the energy in the primary winding is induced into the secondary winding and positive
voltage is accumulated. The diode operates in conduction mode when a positive
voltage is applied to the secondary winding and the maximum current in the secondary
is generated and decreases when the diode is in conduction. The current from the
primary part of the transformer is equal to the current supplied from the power source.
As stated in Eq. 2.3, when the switching element is in cutoff mode, no current flows
from the power supply, that is, from the input part of the circuit.

𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 0 2.3

The maximum current induced in the secondary winding is shown in Eq. 2.4.

𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡 2.4
𝑁𝑝 𝐿𝑝 1

29
 The current in the secondary winding is shown in Eq. 2.5 while in Eq. 2.5 the
symbol 𝐿𝑠 indicates the magnetization inductance of the transformer secondary
winding.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑠𝑚 = −𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑡 − 0) 2.5
𝐿𝑠 1

The energy accumulated in the air gap of the transformer is transferred to the
secondary part of the circuit. In this case, the output filter capacitor is charged and the
load current at the output is obtained. (Kamil, 2007) Capacitance, ESR, ESL and ripple
voltage value across the capacitor are important to determine the output filter
capacitor. Capacitance, ESR and ESL values of the filter capacitor control the peak-
to-peak voltage at the frequency of the switching element.

2.2 Flyback Converter Operation

Switching power supplies are examined, there are continuous, discontinuous

and limit modes while The flyback converter also has continuous, discontinuous and
boundary modes. (Urgun et al, 2009) Transducer performance and waveforms differ
for CCM and DCM modes. The flyback converter has two different operating modes,
CCM and DCM, which occur when switching when the current of its transformer is at
zero. In addition, the flyback converter has a boundary mode that occurs when the
energy stored in the transformer reaches zero when the switching period ends. In other
words, it is the boundary state of the switching element when it goes from open to
closed, from closed to open. Fig. 5. shows the circuit diagram suitable for the operating
modes of the flyback converter with clamp&snubber.

30
 Figure 5. Circuit Diagram of Flyback Converter with Clamp&Snubber

DCM and CCM modes are determined according to the on-off state of the
switching element when the currents in the primary and secondary parts of the
transformer, which the converter has, fall to zero or change direction without falling
to zero. The flyback converter also has Boundary Conduction Mode (BCM) mode
different from DCM and CCM mode. The BCM is formed by the flyback converter
operating at the boundary between CCM and DCM. The switching element of the
converter starts to operate in conduction mode while energy is stored on the
transformer as much as the load needs to be used. Then the switching element switches
to the cut-off mode. When the load connected to the output side of the converter
absorbs all the energy on the transformer, the switch starts to operate in transmission
mode again. BCM mode operation is similar to DCM mode. A dead time occurs when
the switching element changes from the conduction mode to the cut-off mode. In
addition, enables the converter to work more efficiently and it creates a variable
switching frequency. BCM mode is similar to CCM mode in AC voltage applications
while it can operate more efficiently than CCM mode. In AC voltage applications, core
losses play an important role in the design because the growth of the magnetic field
increases the losses in the transformer core. (Picard, 2010) In the next section, DCM
and CCM modes are explained in detail.

31
2.2 Flyback Converter Operating Modes

2.2.1 Continuous conduction mode. The CCM mode in the flyback converter
occurs when the switching element of the flyback converter turns on again without
reducing the current on the secondary side of the transformer to zero. The fact that the
secondary current does not decrease to zero indicates that there is some more energy
on the secondary side of the transformer. In other words, it is the mode in which the
energy stored in the transformer of the flyback converter is in the transformer in the
ON state of the MOSFET when it is in the next duty area. In this case, the energy
transfer is less in CCM mode. In CCM mode, the secondary current on the transformer
does not go down to zero before the duty cycle is over. The minimum primary current
of the transformer in CCM mode is shown in Eq. 2.6 and primary waveforms in Fig.
6. In Eq. 2.6, the forward voltage of the 𝑉𝑓 output diode defines the 𝑓𝑠𝑤 switching
frequency value.

(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 )𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( ) − ( 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ) 2.6
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑠𝑤 𝑡𝑂𝑁 2

Maximum primary current in Eq. 2.7,

𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 2.7

32
 In Eq. 2.8, the symbol 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 indicates the ripple current formed in the
primary, while the symbol 𝐿𝑝 indicates the magnetization inductance of the primary
winding of the transformer.

1
𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 𝑉 𝑡 2.8
𝐿𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑁

Figure 6. Primary Voltage and Current Waveforms of CCM Mode Transformer

In Fig. 2.6, waveform I indicates the maximum voltage in the primary winding
of the transformer 𝑉𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the minimum primary voltage 𝑉𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 , in waveform II, the
maximum primary current 𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 and the minimum primary current 𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 of the
transformer. In Eq. 2.9, the minimum secondary current in CCM mode is,

𝑁𝑃
𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 2.9
𝑁𝑆

33
 Maximum secondary current in Eq. 2.10,

𝑁𝑃
𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ) ( ) 2.10
𝑁𝑆

While the secondary waveforms are shown in Fig. 7, waveform I represents the
maximum voltage in the secondary winding of the transformer 𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the minimum
primary voltage 𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 , in waveform II, the maximum secondary current 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 and the
minimum secondary current 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 indicate the transformer.

Figure 7. Secondary Voltage and Current Waveforms of CCM Mode Transformer

34
 The current on the output diode is the same as the current on the secondary
section of the transformer. The minimum current of the output diode is specified in
Eq. 2.11 and its maximum current is specified in Eq. 2.12.

𝐼𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 2.11

𝐼𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 2.12

In the flyback converter, the CCM mode provides a high inductive capacity
and large volume transformer due to its larger DC flux density. (R. Kanthimathi & J.
Kamala, 2015)

Fig. 8 shows the waveforms of the switching element and output diode of the
Flyback converter in CCM mode, waveform I shows the PWM signal applied for
switching on and off of the switching element, in other words the duty cycle, in
waveform II shows the voltage levels and ringing on the switching element, in
waveform III shows the current change on the switching element indicated by the
symbol ∆𝐼𝑠𝑤 , and waveform IV shows the current change on the output diode.

35
 Figure 8. Switching Element and Output Diode Waveforms in CCM Mode

CCM mode is the low magnetization state of the core of the flyback converter
transformer. The flux in the transformer core increases linearly from the zero order
until the switch is closed during the open mode of the switching element. The flux in
the core must be equal to the change in the switch open state time and the change in
the switching element closed state time. In other words, the change in core flux during
the duty cycle should be equal. When the flux change in the core is equal during the
on state (𝑡𝑂𝑁 time shown in waveform I in Figure 2.8) and off state (𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 time shown
in waveform I in Fig. 8), the core is prevented from reaching saturation. Switching
element open state is given in Eq. 2.13 and closed state is given in Eq. 2.14.

36
 𝑁𝑃
1 𝑁𝑆
𝑡𝑂𝑁 = ( ) (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 ) ( ) 2.13
𝑓𝑠𝑤 𝑁
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 ) 𝑁𝑃
𝑆

1
𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 = ( ) − 𝑡𝑂𝑁 2.14
𝑓𝑠𝑤

The load connected to the flyback converter in practice creates losses in the
transformer and output diode of the converter. Ideal situation In CCM mode, the duty
cycle of the flyback converter changes to keep the output voltage constant. The input
and output voltages generated by the CCM mode flyback converter are shown in Eq.
2.15. The symbol 𝐷 indicates the duty cycle.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑁𝑆 𝐷
= ( ).( ) 2.15
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑃 1−𝐷

During the duty cycle, resonance and voltage stress occur on the energy stored
in the transformer due to the switching element capacitance and the transformer
leakage inductance. Ringing is reflected from the primary side of the transformer to
the secondary winding while to eliminate the ringing, damping is done with snubber
and clamp circuits. The maximum voltage stress of the switching element is shown in
Eq. 2.16. The symbol 𝑉𝑐𝑠 denotes the clamp&snubber circuit (ringing) peak voltage,
the leakage inductance in the primary winding of the 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 transformer.

𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑠𝑤 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑐𝑠 + 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 2.16

37
 In CCM mode, the flyback converter contains lower peak currents on the
transformer and a smaller output capacitor than in DCM mode. This makes EMI
problems simpler. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the output filter capacitor
plays an important role in reducing the output voltage ripple of the flyback converter.
The voltage ripple variation (peak-to-peak) of the output filter capacitor is equal to the
maximum value of the current in the secondary of the output diode and transformer.
(Hart, 2010) In CCM mode, flyback converter output voltage fluctuation is in Eq. 2.17,

∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷
= 2.17
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝐿 𝐶𝑜 𝑓𝑠𝑤

The voltage variation formula of the output filter capacitor equivalent

resistance is given in Eq. 2.18.

𝑁𝑃
∆𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑆𝑅 = (𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 ) ( ) 𝑅𝐶𝐸𝑆𝑅 2.18
𝑜
𝑁𝑆

In CCM mode, the transformer consumes more energy than the DCM mode, as
it has lower peak currents on it and reduces the transmission loss of the switching
element.

The flyback converter with CCM mode simplifies the design since the input
and output voltage gain are determined according to the duty cycle while convenient
to use in designs with low voltage and high current requirements.

38
 2.2.2 Discontinuous conduction mode. DCM mode in flyback converter
occurs when the switching element of the flyback converter turns on again when the
current on the secondary side of the transformer drops to zero. The current increases
on the primary side of the transformer When the switching element of the converter
enters cutoff mode. The current in the secondary section of the transformer drops to
zero when the switch turns on. The decrease of the secondary current to zero indicates
that the energy level of the primary section of the transformer has decreased to zero
and the secondary section has reached the maximum energy level. This indicates that
there is maximum energy transfer on the transformer of the flyback converter in DCM
mode. Since the diode in the output section of the converter is in the off state, the
output current is supplied from the filter capacitor while the output diode in the cut-
off state, the output section of the converter becomes isolated from the input section.
In DCM mode, the secondary current on the transformer goes down to zero before the
duty cycle ends. The primary voltage and current waveforms of the transformer are
shown in Fig. 9 and the minimum primary current in Eq. 2.19.

𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 2.19

The maximum primary current of the transformer is shown in Eq. 2.20.

1
𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 𝑉 𝑡 2.20
𝐿𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑁

39
 Figure 9. Primary Voltage and Current Waveforms of DCM Mode Transformer

The secondary voltage and current waveforms of the transformer are shown in Fig. 10
and the minimum secondary current in Eq. 2.21.

𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 2.21

The maximum secondary current of the transformer is shown in Eq.2.22.

1 𝑁𝑃
𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑂𝑁 ( ) 2.22
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝑆

40
 Figure 10. Primary Voltage and Current Waveforms of DCM Mode Transformer

As shown in Eq. 2.23, when the components used in the converter are
considered ideal, the power supplied from the power supply is the same as the power
drawn from the load of the circuit.

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.23

In practice, in the DCM mode shown in Eq. 2.24, the value of the input power
of the converter is found by dividing the output power value by the efficiency of the
converter. In Eq. 2.24, the symbol 𝜂 indicates the efficiency of the converter.

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 2.24
𝜂

41
 In Fig. 11, the PWM signal applied for the opening and closing of waveform I
switching element, in other words, the duty cycle, voltage levels and ringing on the
switching element in waveform II, current levels on the switching element in
waveform III, the current levels occurring on the output diode are indicated in
waveform IV. In the switching element conduction mode shown in Fig. 11, the
inductance value and the on-time of the switching element increase up to the value
determined during 𝑡𝑂𝑁 time. During the switching element conduction time, the output
current is provided through the output capacitor, since the output diode behaves in the
cut-off state. The switching element cut-off status is indicated by 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 . When the
switching element is in the cut-off state, the energy on the transformer creates a
negative voltage on the secondary winding. This situation fills the output filter
capacitor by sending the current on the output diode to the load part. Since the current
on the output diode decreases during 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹1 , the energy stored during the tone period is
exhausted. When the stored energy is exhausted, a ringing occurs at 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 time and
no current flows during 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 time. If the elements contained in the transducer are
considered ideal, ringing does not occur, but in a practical situation, ringing does
occur. Resonance occurs due to the capacitances of the switching element and the
output diode, the magnetizing inductance of the transformer.

42
 Figure 11 Switching Element and Output Diode Waveforms in DCM mode

The open 𝑡𝑂𝑁 state of the switching element in Eq. 2.15, in Eq. 2.16, the time
of the switching element, number one closed state 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹1 and number two closed state
𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 , are also indicated in Eq. 2.17.

43
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓
𝑡𝑂𝑁 = √2𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐿𝑝 ( 2 ) 2.15
𝑓𝑠𝑤 𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝑁𝑝
𝑉𝑖𝑛 + (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 ) 𝑁
𝑠
𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹1 = (𝑡𝑂𝑁 ) − 𝑡𝑂𝑁 2.16
𝑁𝑝
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 ) 𝑁
𝑠

1
𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 = − 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 2.17
𝑓𝑠𝑤

The voltage formed on the switching element during the 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 process is
specified in Eq. 2.18.

𝑉𝑠𝑤 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 2.18

The current generated on the output diode is the same as the current in the
secondary section of the transformer as in the CCM mode. The minimum current of
the output diode is specified in Eq. 2.11, and its maximum current is specified in Eq.
2.12. The voltage formed on the output diode at the time 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 is given in Eq. 2.19.

𝑡
𝑉𝐷 𝑂𝐹𝐹2 = −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.19

44
 The current formed on the output filter capacitor at the time 𝑡𝑂𝑁 is specified in
Eq. 2.20.

𝐼𝐶𝑜 = −𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.20

The minimum current formed on the output filter capacitor during 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹1 and
𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹2 times is specified in Eq. 2.21, and maximum current is specified in Eq. 2.22.

𝐼𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑜
= 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.21

𝐼𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑜
= 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.22

DCM mode in flyback converter has low efficiency and high leakage
inductance of transformer. The leakage inductance of the transformer and the current
in its primary winding create instantaneous resonance and voltage stress while this
causes EMI problems and high cost of the switching element. (Urgun et al, 2009)
Transducer efficiency can be increased when the ringing and voltage stress in the
switching element is reduced. Snubber&clamp applications are used to reduce ringing
and tension stress while rectifier diodes can be used to reduce switching element
problems. (Choi, 2004) DCM mode is suitable for low current and high voltage
applications. In DCM mode, low inductance transformer is required compared to CCM
mode, due to the high current ripple. This reduces the size and cost of the transformer.
(Picard, 2010) In CCM mode, the input and output voltage gain is determined by the
duty cycle, while in DCM mode, the input and output voltage gain is determined by
the duty cycle and load condition. (Choi, 2004)

45
2.3 Snubber Cell & Clamp

In switching power applications, the transformer or coil connected to the

switching element generates ringing due to leakage inductances in the on and off
transition states of the switching element. It causes switching losses due to current and
voltage blockage in the on and off transition state (Pressman et al, 2009). As the
switching element transitions from the on state to the off state, the current changes
rapidly, utilising the leakage inductance of the transformer or coil, causing overvoltage
amplification and voltage stress. When high current and voltage occur during the
transition of the switching element from the off state to the on state, it takes the
switching element out of the safe operating region (Trzynadlowski, 2015). This
situation overstresses the circuit elements and causes the converter to fail or shorten
its life. In addition, the resulting voltage stress is transmitted to the converter system
as a noise problem. Ringing-induced, radiated, transmitted noise, voltage stress, EMI
problems and switching losses. The switching element voltage stress of the converter
has a high peak value. Clamp designs are recommended for the voltage stress on the
switching element of the converter and snubber designs are recommended for ringing.
(Ridley, 2005) The purpose of clamp and snubber designs is to reduce switching losses
by reducing the ringing and voltage stress on the switching element, to prevent
overvoltage and overcurrent spikes and to ensure linear and safe operation of the
switched power system.

Snubber designs raise key criteria such as efficiency, reliability and

performance of a switching power converter, while lowering criteria such as size and
weight. This makes the converter more useful and convenient. In addition, switching
converters with high switching frequency create higher ringing and EMI problems,
which can be easily solved with snubber designs. (Todd, 1993) This makes the
converter more useful and convenient. In addition, switching converters with high
switching frequency create higher ringing and EMI problems, which can be easily
solved with snubber designs. (Todd, 1993) Snubber designs help to distribute voltage
between series connected switching elements and to protect currents between parallel
connected switching elements. Snubber designs and structures vary according to

46
switching power supply topologies. (Trzynadlowski, 2015) The snubber circuit
dampens the reactances created by leakage inductances and capacitances. RC snubber
is used to minimise the power dissipation on the switching element. The resistor
connected in parallel to the switching element reduces the voltage rise caused by the
ringing and absorbs the energy. When a capacitor is connected in series, it dissipates
the energy on the system while switching loss is reduced. When the resistor and
capacitor values are selected appropriately in the design, the losses from the switching
element are reduced by 40% (Todd, 1993).

Ringing occurs in flyback converters due to capacitance and inductance. In the

flyback converter, the printed circuit board designed for the converter, the converter
elements create capacitance, while the transformer creates leakage inductance.
Ringing is seen on the diode and switching element. (Betten, 2016) In flyback
converters, when the switching element is switched off, the leakage inductance of the
transformer stops the current and the voltage on the switching element rises
excessively while the capacitance formed in other components with the voltage rise
creates ringing in the primary winding of the flyback transformer. The peak voltage
value of the ringing is given in Eq. 2.23 while in Eq. 2.23, 𝑉𝑠𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 is the peak value of
the resonance, 𝐼𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 is the current value of the switching element in the off state, 𝐿𝑝 is
the primary winding inductance of the transformer, 𝐶𝐿𝑝 is the inductance in the primary
winding of the transformer.

𝐿𝑝 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑠𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 𝐼𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 (√( )) + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + ( ) 2.23
𝐶𝐿𝑝 + 𝐶𝑜 𝑁𝑝

Considering the cost issue, RC snubber design is used to damp the ringing.
(Sonst, 2021) RC snubber does not need additional control and is called energy
consuming snubber. Fig. 12 shows the RC snubber circuit of the Flyback converter
topology.

47
 Figure 12. RC Snubber Circuit of the Flyback Topology

In the snubber circuit, a resistor is used to damp the resonance formed by the
leakage inductances of the transformer, and a capacitor connected in series with the
resistor is used to damp the voltages generated by the frequency generated by the
switching element. (Ridley, 2005) If the characteristic impedance value of the
resonance formed by the leakage inductances is equal to the snubber resistance, the
ringing is significantly damped. In addition, the frequency of the resonance helps the
damping significantly. The frequency of the resonance should be approximately twice
the switching frequency (Ridley, 2005). The characteristic resonance value is given in
Eq. 2.24. In Eq. 2.24, the symbol 𝑍 is the characteristic value of the resonance, 𝑓𝑠 is
the frequency of the resonance and 𝐿𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑝 is the leakage inductance of the transformer
and 𝑍𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 is the primary leakage inductance impedance of the transformer.

[𝑍𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘

𝑝 ] 2.24

48
 Since the inductance value of the resonance is equal to the leakage inductance
in the primary section of the transformer, the snubber resistance can be easily
estimated. When the value of the capacitor connected in series is chosen equal to the
impedance of the ringing frequency, the ringing is stopped. The value of the capacitor
is given in Eq. 2.25 while in the Eq. 2.25, the symbol 𝐶𝑠 indicates the snubber capacitor
value and the symbol 𝑅𝑠 indicates the snubber resistance value.

1
𝐶𝑠 = 2.25
2𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑅𝑠

In practice, it is observed experimentally by calculating the capacitor value

using resistance estimation and the ringing can be optimised by increasing the
capacitor value. The power dissipation on the snubber circuit is determined by the
capacitor connected in series with the snubber resistance. Snubber power dissipation
is given in Eq. 2.26 while in Eq. 2.26, the symbol 𝑃𝑠 indicates the power dissipation
value and 𝑉𝑠 indicates the difference between the peak ringing voltage and the input
voltage.

𝑃𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑠 )2 𝑓𝑠𝑤 2.26

Clamp design is used when the snubber is inadequate. Clamp is designed to

reduce the ringing and power losses of the switching elements as in the snubber. The
clamp design protects the power converter system by not allowing the voltage jump
generated by the switching element to exceed the maximum voltage value of the
switching element. EMI problems are solved more easily by controlling the peak
voltage, current and power on the switching element. Generally, resistor, capacitor and
diode components are used. Fig. 13 shows the RCD clamp circuit of the flyback
converter topology.

49
 Figure 13. Clamp Circuit of the Flyback Converter

2.4 Flyback Converter Transformer

In SMPS converters, magnetic elements such as inductors and transformers are

used according to topologies. Transformers are used for energy storage and energy
transmission. In flyback converters, magnetic element transformer is used and
transformer design is among the most important elements for the converter. Flyback
transformer stores and transmits energy while isolating the input and output. Flyback
transformer works like an inductor with two or more than two windings while its
behaviour of storing and transmitting energy shows that it is different from a normal
transformer. Due to the energy storage in the transformer, there is no need for an output
filter compared to other isolated SMPS topologies, which reduces the number of
components used in the converter and reduces the cost value. (Adams, 2001) For
transformer design, it is necessary to determine the input voltage, output voltage,
maximum power rating, duty cycle and operating frequency parameters. According to
the determined parameters, the number of transformer windings, size and core
selection can be made easily. Fig. 14 shows the flyback transformer structure.

50
 Figure 14. Flyback Transformer Structure

The primary winding of the transformer is magnetised when the switching

element switches to the conduction state and stores energy in the air gap. When the
switching element switches to the cut-off state, the energy stored in the air gap passes
to the secondary winding. The secondary winding stops the magnetisation of the core
and transmits the energy accumulated in the air gap to the load part. The secondary
winding can provide isolation while it increases or decreases the input voltage
according to the winding number ratio. When the number of secondary windings
increases, more output voltage can be obtained with a single input voltage. No current
flows in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer at the same time
(Picard, 2010). (Picard, 2010) Fig. 15 shows the transformer in the switch conduction
state and Fig. 16 shows the transformer in the switch off state.

Figure 15. Transformer Current Flow with Switch On

51
 Figure 16. Transformer Current Flow with Switch Closed

In order for the flyback transformer to operate at high switching frequency, a

core material with low losses should be used to store the energy of the transformer and
to prevent saturation of the core. The core should be selected according to system
parameters such as size, power rating, output voltage rating and cost. It is more
appropriate to use large cores in low voltage value and multiple output voltage
applications. There are different core materials used today. The core type commonly
used in SMPS applications, including flyback, is ferrite. Choi, 2012) Ferrite has iron
oxide compounds in its structure while it is baked at high temperature. Ferrite cores
are used in many inductor designs while they are also preferred in transformers. In the
physical design of inductors and transformers, ferrite is formed by wrapping wire
around it. Ferrite cores have high permeability, high flux density, low core loss and
limited shapes (Coilcraft, 2022).

There are E, EFD, EPC, EE, EF, ETD, EET and PQ core types. EFD and EPC
cores are used due to their small size, EE and EF cores are used for vertical or
horizontal use, ETD and EER cores are used if a larger area is required, and PQ type
cores are used for lower winding number, winding surface area ratio and good EMI
return. PQ type cores require less number of windings than EE type cores. PQ type
cores have proportional round feet, large outer surface and better EMI spectrum than

52
E type cores. In addition, due to its round surface, it reduces the copper cost for
production and provides heat dissipation for design. (TDK, 2013)

One of the most important criteria in ferrite selection is magnetic permeability,

magnetic flux density and magnetic field strength. Magnetic permeability of ferrite
cores is high and changes with temperature while the change in magnetic permeability
with temperature leads to power loss. Magnetic permeability and magnetic flux density
are analysed by examining the B-H graph in the data sheets of ferrites. Fig. 17 shows
an ideal B-H graph, known as the magnetisation curve. Tesla (T) stands for induction
in the core, B stands for magnetic flux density and H stands for magnetic field strength.

Figure 17. Typical Magnetization Graph

The curve indicated as the initial magnetising shows the initial magnetisation
of a core that has never been magnetised. At small currents, the slope of the curve is
low and the core increases the magnetisation at very small rates, which is referred to
as the initial permeability. As the current is increased, the curve steepens and remains
close to the line in a fairly large region in this region the permeability is high. At large

53
field intensities (currents), the slope of the curve starts to decrease again and eventually
it is referred to as saturation, i.e. saturation. In the saturation region, the transformer
now operates like a simple air coil without a core. If the current passing through a
magnetised coil is reduced until saturation, the magnetisation in the core does not
decrease by following the initial change curve backwards, it remains slightly above
this curve and the magnetisation is not zero when the current is completely cut off. The
remaining magnetisation is called remanence. In order to eliminate the remanence, it
is necessary to flow some current in the opposite direction, which is called coercive
current. If the current is continued to increase in the reverse direction, the saturation
region in the negative direction is reached. By decreasing this current in the negative
direction, the remanence and coercive field regions in this direction are passed with a
change similar to that in the positive direction, and by increasing the current in the
positive direction again, the saturation region on the positive side is reached again. As
can be seen, the magnetisation characteristic is not a curved line, but a closed shape
and this is called hysteresis curve. As a result of the B-H analysis, boundary values
and behaviours are found for the core not to saturate. Eq. 2.27 specifies the magnetic
field strength and Eq. 2.28 specifies the magnetic flux density.

I. 𝑁 𝐴
𝐻= 2.27
𝐼 𝑚

Ø 𝑉𝑠
𝐵= 2.28
𝐴 𝑚2

The other important issues in the flyback transformer are the air gap, winding
wires and core losses. In the flyback transformer, energy is stored in the air gap as
mentioned before. The reason why the energy is stored in the air gap is that the core
has a high permeability and cannot store excess energy without reaching saturation.
When the air gap is added to the transformer, the hysteresis curve of the core is skewed
and the magnetic field intensity is increased to take the core to the saturation region.

54
(Dinwoodie, 1999) In each period, the hysteresis curve will create energy loss by
rotating once. In order to reduce the energy loss in the design, the hysteresis field is
selected as small as possible. Cores are not placed in one piece for the windings. The
core, which becomes conductive when placed in one piece, causes the primary winding
to behave like a short circuit to the secondary winding. In this case, the primary
winding flows current called Foucault currents and causes a large power loss.
Hysteresis and Foucault losses are called iron losses and are considered as a resistance
parallel to the primary. The resistances of transformer windings cause power and
voltage losses. The losses that the winding currents spend on the winding wires are
called iron losses. In order to reduce copper losses, it is reduced by using large cross-
sections of winding wires. In converter design, parallel windings with more than one
wire should be used for high efficiency and to reduce the skin effect.

55
 Chapter 3

Proposed Design Details

3.1 Introduction

In this section, the parameters of the flyback converter are given and detailed
calculations are made. Calculations related to the transformer and EMI filter designs
are given and information about the integrated used for the converter is given. Together
with the calculations and approximate estimates, the converter circuit diagram is
created and the converter circuit is simulated with LTspice programme and the results
are given.

3.2 Flyback Converter Design Calculation

The requirements of the flyback converter circuit designed within the scope of
the thesis are given in Table 1. In the circuit designed for the converter, the LT8316
integrated produced by Analogue Devices was used due to the fact that it does not need
a feedback circuit, does not need an optocoupler circuit for regulation and generally
reduces the cost. MOSFET was chosen as the switching element due to its high
switching frequency, high input voltage value, thermal performance and cost.
FCB125N65S3 MOSFET manufactured by ON Semiconductor was selected in line
with the requirements considered in the design. The transformer core CF139PQ2620
manufactured by Cosmo Ferrites was selected due to its small size, cost, ease of design
and EMI response. The output diode is MBRD10100CT manufactured by ON
Semiconductor due to cost and thermal performance. The design calculations for the
flyback converter are shown below with formulas.

56
Table 1

Flyback Converter Requirements

Flyback Converter Requirements

Parameter Symbol Value
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Max. Input Voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 137.5VDC
𝑛𝑜𝑚
Nominal Input Voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 110VDC
Min. Input Voltage 𝑚𝑖𝑛 77VDC
𝑉𝑖𝑛
Output Current 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 1.5A
Output Voltage Ripple 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 < 100𝑚𝑉
Output Power 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 36W
Switching Frequency 𝑓𝑠𝑤 45kHz

3.2.1 Design of flyback transformer. The magnetisation inductance suitable

for the requirements of the flyback converter transformer converter is calculated by
determining the minimum opening, closing time and output power of the converter
specified in the datasheet page of the LT8316 integration. The current generated in the
secondary winding of the transformer transfers the output voltage value to the tertiary
winding of the transformer with a feedback pulse while LT8316 needs 800ns to adjust
and sample the output voltage transferred with a margin of error. In other words, the
secondary winding of the transformer transfers the voltage value to the tertiary winding
of the transformer for a minimum of 800ns in order to generate the sampling value. In
addition, it is necessary to determine the duty cycle (𝑫) value in order to determine
the magnetizing inductances of the transformer, the current values of the primary and
secondary, and the SENSE(𝑹𝒔𝒏𝒔 ) resistance value of the switching element, which is
known as the current limiting resistance. Eq. 3.1 specifies the duty cycle value while
Eq. 3.2 calculates the duty cycle. The symbol 𝑵𝑷𝑺 represents the primary winding
coefficient and its value is taken as 4.

57
 (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 )𝑁𝑃𝑆
𝐷= 3.1
𝑚𝑖𝑛
((𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 )𝑁𝑃𝑆 ) + 𝑉𝑖𝑛

(24 + 0.8) ∗ 4
𝐷= = 0,56 3.2
((24 + 0.8) ∗ 4) + 77

Eq. 3.3 specifies the resistance value 𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 . Eq. 3.4 calculates the resistance
value 𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 while 80% is the approximate flyback converter efficiency. The LT8316
integration limits the current at maximum by creating a voltage of maximum 100mV
and minimum 50mV on the SENSE pin to set the maximum current of the converter.
In the worst case condition, that is, at the minimum input voltage, the current limitation
is determined in the duty cycle.

1−𝐷
𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 = 50𝑚𝑉𝑁𝑃𝑆 80% 3.3
𝐼𝑜

1 − 0,56
𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 = ∗ 0.05 ∗ 4 ∗ 0,8 = 0,046 ≅ 50𝑚Ω 3.4
1.5

The approximate value of the minimum primary magnetisation inductance of

the transformer is given in equation 3.5 while calculated in equation 3.6. In the 3.5
equation, 𝐿𝑝 primary inductance value, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 output voltage, 𝑉𝑓 output diode forward
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
voltage value, 𝐼𝑠𝑤 minimum switching current limit and 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 minimum switching off
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
time value. In the datasheet of the LT8316 integration, 𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 value is 800ns, 𝐼𝑠𝑤 value
is 20𝑚𝑉/𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 . As stated in the datasheet of the LT8356 integration, the maximum
input voltage is 600VDC. The flyback converter designed in this thesis has a maximum
input voltage of 137.5VDC. In order for the converter to have a wider input voltage
range and ease of production according to the requirements, the PCB designed is

58
designed to operate up to 600VDC above 137.5VDC by changing only the side
components on it. In this case, in order for the primary winding of the transformer to
withstand the maximum input voltage, the maximum voltage value on the transformer
was set at 600VDC.

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑁𝑃𝑆 (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 )
𝐿𝑝 ≥ 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3.5
𝐼𝑠𝑤

800 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 4 ∗ (24 + 0.8)

𝐿𝑝 ≥ = 198.4𝜇𝐻 ≅ 200𝜇𝐻 3.6
0.4

As stated in the datasheet of the LT8316 integration, the current rises when the
MOSFET is first switched on and The increase in current causes the switching element
to operate unstable. In order to reduce the current rise, the integrated MOSFET does
not switch the MOSFET into conduction in less than 300ns. Considering this situation,
the value of the primary inductance is given in the Eq. 3.7 while calculated in Eq. 3.8.
In the Eq. 3.7, 𝑡𝑡ℎ value is taken as 300ns.

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑝 ≥ 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3.7
𝐼𝑠𝑤

300 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 600

𝐿𝑝 ≥ = 450𝜇𝐻 3.8
0.4

LT8316 integration is operating at maximum frequency, when the

magnetisation inductance of the transformer must be the value that will provide power
to the secondary of the transformer. For this reason, the magnetisation inductance is
required to be frequency dependent. Eq. 3.9 specifies the frequency dependent primary

59
 𝑚𝑎𝑥
magnetisation inductance while calculated in Eq. 3.10. In Eq. 3.9, 𝐼𝑠𝑤 is the
𝑚𝑎𝑥
maximum switching current limit, 𝑓𝑠𝑤 is the maximum switching frequency of the
𝑚𝑎𝑥
LT8316 integrated and 𝜂 is the efficiency. 𝐼𝑠𝑤 is set at 100𝑚𝑉/𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 , 𝜂 is
𝑚𝑎𝑥
approximately 80% and 𝑓𝑠𝑤 is set at 140 kHz as stated in the datasheet of the LT8316
integration.

2(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 )𝐼𝑜
𝐿𝑝 ≥ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 3.9
𝜂(𝐼𝑠𝑤 ) 𝑓𝑠𝑤

2 ∗ (24 + 0.8) ∗ 1.5

𝐿𝑝 ≥ = 166𝜇𝐻 ≅ 170𝜇𝐻 3.10
0.8 ∗ 22 𝑥 ∗ 140 ∗ 103

The maximum value of the magnetisation inductance depends on the high

speed opening and closing of the output diode. Activates the 50us timer to bring the
diode into conduction when the LT8316 integration cannot detect the output diode
closing. In this case, the primary magnetisation inductance should not be large enough
to exceed the 50us time required for the output diode to enter conduction and the
primary magnetisation inductance needs to be dependent on the backup time(𝑡𝑏𝑡 ). The
maximum value of the magnetisation inductance in the primary winding is given in
Eq. 3.11. while in Eq. 3.11, 𝑡𝑏𝑡 is taken as 50 𝜇𝑠 and calculated in Eq. 3.12.

0.8(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 )𝑁𝑃𝑆 𝑡𝑏𝑡

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 < 𝑚𝑎𝑥 3.11
𝐼𝑠𝑤

0.8 ∗ (24 + 0.8) ∗ 4 ∗ 50 ∗ 10−6

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 < = 1.98𝑚𝐻 ≅ 2𝑚𝐻 3.12
2

60
 The values calculated in equations 3.6, 3.8 and 3.10 are the limit values for the
primary magnetisation inductance of the transformer. In practice, the magnetisation
inductance is determined by calculating approximately 20%-50% more than the
calculated limit values for high voltage, current, thermal performance and not
saturating the core. Calculate the nominal primary magnetisation inductance, the
highest limit value calculated in equation 3.8 is 450μH. In this case, the nominal
primary magnetisation inductance value is stated in equation 3.13 using the result of
equation 3.8 and calculated in Eq. 3.14. The maximum primary magnetisation
inductance value is specified in Eq. 3.15 using the result of equation 3.12 and is
calculated in Eq. 3.16.

𝐿𝑝 = 𝐿𝑝 + (𝐿𝑝 ∗ 50%) 3.13

𝐿𝑝 = 450 ∗ 10−6 + (450 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 50%) = 675𝜇𝐻 ≅ 670𝜇𝐻 3.14

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 = 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 + (𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 ∗ 50%) 3.15

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 = 2 ∗ 10−3 + (2 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 50%) = 3𝑚𝐻 3.16

The secondary magnetisation inductance value depends on the primary

magnetisation inductance value. The secondary magnetisation inductance value is
stated in Eq. 3.17 while is calculated in equation 3.18.

𝐿𝑝 = 𝐿𝑠 (𝑁𝑃𝑆 )2 3.17

𝐿𝑠 = 41.8𝜇𝐻 ≅ 40𝜇𝐻 3.18

61
 The air gap of the transformer is determined by the nominal inductance (𝐴𝐿 )
value of the core, the effective area of the core, the primary magnetisation inductance
and the primary winding coefficient. The air gap of the transformer is given in Eq. 3.19
while calculated in Eq 3.20. In Eq. 3.19, 𝐿𝑎𝑔 is the air gap value, µ0 is the magnetic
permeability coefficient of the core, 𝐴𝑒 is the effective area and 𝐴𝐿 is the nominal
inductance value of the core. The 𝐴𝐿 value in the datasheet of the CF139PQ2620 core
is 4500nH, the 𝐴𝑒 value is 121mm² but is determined in m² and µ0 is taken as 4𝜋10−7.

𝑁𝑃𝑆 2 1
𝐿𝑎𝑔 = µ0 𝐴𝑒 ( − ) 103 3.19
𝐿𝑝 𝐴𝐿

𝐿𝑎𝑔 = 4 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 10−7 ∗ 121 ∗ 10−6

42 1
∗( − ) ∗ 103 = 0.03𝑚𝑚 3.20
670 ∗ 10−6 4500 ∗ 10−9

The air gap value was determined as 0.2mm when the data sheet of the core
was analysed and the new 𝐴𝐿 value corresponding to the 0.2mm air gap specified in
the data sheet was determined as 630nH.

The tertiary winding is fed from the Bias pin of the LT8316 integration. As
stated in the data sheet of the LT8316 integration, the tertiary winding coefficient
should be between 10VDC-30VDC values. The tertiary winding ratio is specified in
equation 3.21 while calculated in Eq. 3.22.

10𝑉𝐷𝐶 30𝑉𝐷𝐶
< 𝑁𝑇𝑆 < 3.21
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

0.41 < 𝑁𝑇𝑆 < 1.25 3.22

62
 The tertiary winding 𝑁𝑇𝑆 ratio is determined as 0.5.

The number of primary and secondary windings is related to the coefficient

specified in the datasheet of the LT8316 integration and the 𝐴𝐿 value of the
CF139PQ2620 core. In the datasheet of the core, the 𝐴𝐿 value depending on the air
gap calculation is 630nH. The number of turns depending on the 𝐴𝐿 value of the core
is specified in Eq. 3.23, the number of primary turns in Eq. 3.24 and the number of
secondary turns in Eq. 3.25.

𝐿
𝑁=√ 3.23
𝐴𝐿

670 ∗ 10−6
𝑁𝑃 = √ = 32.61 ≅ 32 3.24
630 ∗ 10−9

40 ∗ 10−6
𝑁𝑆 = √ = 7.96 ≅ 8 3.25
630 ∗ 10−9

From the values found in the equations, the ratio of primary and secondary
winding number is 4:1. In the numbered equation, the tertiary winding 𝑁𝑇𝑆 winding
number coefficient is determined as 0.5, while the primary, secondary and tertiary
winding number ratios are 4:1:0.5 respectively. Since the winding number ratios are
determined, the number of primary windings is 8 times the number of tertiary windings
and the number of secondary windings is 2 times the number of tertiary windings.In
this case, the number of tertiary windings is stated in Eq. 3.26 while calculated in Eq.
3.27.

63
 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆
𝑁𝑇 = = 3.26
8 2

33
𝑁𝑇 = = 4.125 ≅ 4 3.27
8

Since the tertiary winding winding number is 4, the magnetisation inductance

is given in Eq. 3.28 using Eq. 3.23 and in Eq. 3.28, 𝐿𝑡 is the tertiary winding
magnetisation inductance.

𝐿𝑡
4=√ = 10.08𝜇𝐻 ≅ 10𝜇𝐻, 𝐿𝑡 = 10𝜇𝐻 3.28
630 ∗ 10−9

The input voltage is applied to the primary section of the transformer to

accumulate energy when the switching element is in the conduction state. When the
switching element is in the cut-off state, the energy accumulated in the primary section
of the transformer is transferred to the secondary section, in other words, to the output
of the flyback converter. This is related to the power generated at the input of the
circuit. Using Eq. 2.24, the input power is given in Eq. 3.29. As stated in Eq. 3.29, the
energy transfer in one second, that is, the energy transfer depending on the switching
frequency, is stated in Eq. 3.30 while in Eq. 3.30, 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 is the primary peak current
and calculated in Eq. 3.31.

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 36
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = = = 45𝑊 3.29
𝜂 0.8

1 2
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝑝 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑠𝑤 3.30
2

64
 1 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 2 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
45𝑊 = ∗ 670 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 𝐼𝑝 ∗ 45 ∗ 103 , 𝐼𝑝 = 1.72𝐴 3.31
2

The average current value in the primary winding of the transformer is

determined by the duty cycle and the minimum input voltage value. Eq. 3.32 specifies
the average current value in the duty primary winding and Eq. 3.33 specifies the
effective value.

𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐷 1.72 ∗ 0.56

𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 0.48𝐴 3.32
2 2

1 1
𝐼𝑝𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 √𝐷 = ∗ 1.72 ∗ √0.56 = 0.74𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆 3.33
√3 √3

The secondary current peak value of the transformer is given in Eq. 3.34 and
the secondary effective value is given in Eq. 3.35.

𝑁𝑃 32
𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 1.72 ∗ = 6.88𝐴 3.34
𝑁𝑆 8

1 1
𝐼𝑠𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 √1 − 𝐷 = ∗ 1.72 ∗ √1 − 0.5 = 0.65𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆 3.35
√3 √3

Primary peak current and number of turns of the transformer are found, the flux
density of the core is calculated when the primary magnetisation inductance. Eq. 3.36
specifies the flux density of the core while 𝐵 denotes the flux density of the core and
calculated in the Eq. 3.37.

65
 𝐿𝑝 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑁𝑃𝑆 𝐵𝐴𝑒 3.36

670 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 1.72 = 32 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 121 ∗ 10−6 , 𝐵 = 0.29𝑇 ≅ 0.3𝑇 3.37

Transformer winding wire American Wire Gauge table is taken as reference.

Table 2 indicates the AWG table.

Table 2 (METERS UK, 2019)

American Wire Gauge

In this table, wires that can pass current over 0.48A minimum in cross-sectional
mm² are determined. Copper wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.35mm² was selected
for the primary winding due to cost and small carcass area. This wire passes a
maximum current of 0.92A. The primary winding of the transformer receives an
average current of 0.48A. When winding twice with a single wire, a maximum current
of 1.84A can pass through the wire. For the secondary winding, a maximum current
of 7.36A can pass through the wire when it is wound twice using 4 wires, in other
words, bifilar winding. Transformer winding information is specified in Annex A.1.

66
 According to the calculated parameters, transformer winding numbers,
winding coefficients and magnetisation inductances are given in Table 3.

Table 3

Transformer Parameters

Transformer Parameters
Parameter Symbol Value
Number of Primary Windings 𝑁𝑃 32
Secondary Winding Number 𝑁𝑆 8
Number of Tertiary Windings 𝑁𝑇 4
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary 𝑁𝑃𝑆 : 𝑁𝑆𝑃 : 𝑁𝑇𝑆 4:1:0.5
Winding Ratio
Primary Magnetisation Inductance 𝐿𝑝 670𝜇𝐻
Secondary Magnetisation Inductance 𝐿𝑠 40𝜇𝐻
Tertiary Magnetisation Inductance 𝐿𝑡 10𝜇𝐻

67
 3.2.2 MOSFET voltage, current and power value calculations. The
MOSFET is selected by determining the 𝑽𝑫𝑺 voltage, internal resistance 𝑹𝒐𝒏
𝑫𝑺 and

power dissipation parameters. Since the maximum input voltage of the flyback
converter is 137.5VDC, the 𝑽𝑫𝑺 voltage should be minimum 137.5VDC. 𝑹𝒐𝒏
𝑫𝑺

resistance should be in the order of mΩ. The MOSFET releases heat energy during
switching on and off and due to the current flowing through it. 𝑹𝒐𝒏
𝑫𝑺 resistance value is

important due to its thermal performance and less energy consumption. The maximum
current across the MOSFET is the same as the current in the primary section of the
transformer. When the MOSFET switches from conduction to cut-off state, the voltage
induced in the secondary of the transformer is reflected to the primary of the
transformer and the reflected voltage falls on the MOSFET. The value of the minimum
𝑽𝑫𝑺 voltage falling on the MOSFET is found by adding the maximum input voltage,
the voltage reflected on the primary of the transformer, and the peak voltage of the
MOSFET during switching. In practice, the resonant voltage should be approximately
50% more than the maximum input voltage. Eq. 3.38 specifies the minimum 𝑽𝑫𝑺
voltage while it is calculated in Eq. 3.39. Eq. 3.40 specifies the value of the voltage
reflected from the secondary to the primary of the transformer while it is calculated in
Eq. 3.41 and Eq. 3.42 specifies the ringing value on the MOSFET at maximum input
voltage while it is calculated in Eq. 3.43.

𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑟𝑓 + 𝑉𝑀 3.38

𝑁𝑃
𝑉𝑟𝑓 = (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑓 ) 3.39
𝑁𝑆

𝑉𝑟𝑓 = (24 + 0.8) ∗ 4 = 99.2𝑉𝐷𝐶 3.40

𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉𝑀 = (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑓 )50% + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 3.41

68
 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉𝑀 = ((137.5 + 0.8) ∗ 50%) + 137.5 = 206.65𝑉𝐷𝐶 3.42

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 137.5 + 99.2 + 206.65 = 443.35𝑉𝐷𝐶 3.43

For cost and rail standards reasons, the FCB125N65S3 MOSFET was specified
𝑜𝑛
in accordance with the calculated MOSFET values. 𝑉𝐷𝑆 voltage is 650VDC, 𝑅𝐷𝑆 is
125mΩ and 𝐼𝐷𝑆 current is 20A under normal conditions specified in the datasheet.

Power losses occur on the MOSFET in the conduction state and due to
switching. The sum of the conduction and switching power losses gives the total power
loss on the MOSFET. Eq. 3.44 shows the total power dissipation equation on the
MOSFET, Equation 3.45 shows the power dissipation in the conduction state, Eq. 3.46
shows the calculation of 3.47, Eq. 3.47 shows the switching power dissipation, Eq.
3.48 shows the calculation of 3.47 and Eq. 3.49 shows the total power dissipation
calculation. In Eq. 3.44 𝑃𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 is the total MOSFET loss, 𝑃𝑀𝐶
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
is the conduction power
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
loss of the MOSFET, 𝑃𝑀𝑠𝑤 is the switching power loss. In Eq. 3.47, 𝐶𝑂𝑆𝑆 is the output
capacitance value of the MOSFET, 𝑡𝑟 is the Turn-On Rise Time of the MOSFET, 𝑡𝑓
is the Turn-Off Fall Time.

𝑃𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑀𝐶
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
+ 𝑃𝑀𝑠𝑤 3.44

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑀𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 2 (𝑅𝐷𝑆
𝑜𝑛
+ 𝑅𝑠𝑛𝑠 ) 3.45

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑀𝐶 = 1.722 ∗ (0.125 + 0.05) = 0.38𝑊 3.46

69
 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
1 2 1 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑃𝑀𝑠𝑤 = ( 𝐶𝑂𝑆𝑆 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑓 ) 𝑓𝑠𝑤 ) + ( (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑓 ) 𝐼𝑝 (𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑓 )𝑓𝑠𝑤 3.47
2 2

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
1
𝑃𝑀𝑠𝑤 = ( ∗ 40 ∗ 10−9 ∗ (137.5 + 0.8)2 ∗ 45 ∗ 103 )
2

1
+ ( ∗ (137.5 + 0.8) ∗ 1.72 ∗ (26 ∗ 10−9 + 17 ∗ 10−9 ) ∗ 45 ∗ 103 ) = 0.34𝑊 3.48
2

𝑃𝑀𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.38 + 0.34 = 0.72𝑊 3.49

In addition, since the maximum input voltage can operate at 600VDC due to
the LT8316 integration, a MOSFET suitable for the MOSFET pad on the PCB is
selected by calculating the equations under section 3.2.2 according to the request, and
a flyback converter with 24VDC output voltage and 1.5A output current can be easily
designed by calculating the side components without designing a separate transformer.
In this case, without working on a new PCB board for the flyback converter to be
designed according to the new requirement, the cost is reduced and the product variety
increases.

70
 3.2.3 Snubber design calculations. The leakage inductances in the
transformer cause ringing on the MOSFET, in other words, voltage spikes when the
MOSFET switches to the cut-off state. If the leakage inductances in the transformer
are high, the voltage ringing will be high. In this case, the leakage inductances in the
transformer must be at minimum level. The voltage spike causes the MOSFET not to
operate in the safe region, EMI problem, overloading the transformer, switching loss,
output voltage fluctuation of the converter and decreases the efficiency. The voltage
rise on the MOSFET is reduced by converting it into heat energy with a resistor and a
capacitor and this is called passive snubber. In order to design the snubber on the
circuit, it is necessary to know the frequency or period of the ringing. The period value
of the ringing was found by measuring with FLUKE brand 199B model numbered
oscilloscope and T5100 probe. As stated in the data sheet of the LT8316 integration,
100pF value is first given for the snubber and the required capacitor value is found by
increasing the 100pF value according to the oscilloscope measurement. Equation 3.50
shows the snubber capacitor 𝑪𝒔 while calculated in Eq. 3.51. 𝑻𝒔𝒏
𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 250ns, 𝑻𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 185ns

were measured with oscilloscope and 𝑪𝒔𝒘 200pF was determined.

𝐶𝑠𝑤
𝐶𝑠 = 𝑠𝑛 2 3.50
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
( ) −1
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

200 ∗ 10−12
𝐶𝑠 = 2 = 242𝑝𝐹 ≅ 300𝑝𝐹 3.51
250 ∗ 10−9
( ) −1
185 ∗ 10−9

Snubber resistance is calculated with the leakage inductance value at the

transformer primary. In Eq. 3.52, the leakage inductance at the transformer primary is
calculated while the symbol 𝐿𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑝 indicates the leakage inductance at the transformer
primary.

71
 2 2
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 185 ∗ 10−9 1
𝐿𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑝 =( ) =( ) = 2.8𝜇𝐻 3.52
2𝜋 𝐶𝑠 2𝜋 300 ∗ 10−12

Eq. 3.53 shows the snubber resistance value 𝑅𝑠 .

𝐿𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑝 2.8 ∗ 10−6
𝑅𝑠 = √ =√ = 96.6Ω ≅ 100Ω 3.53
𝐶𝑠 300 ∗ 10−12

The resistance 𝑅𝑠 is selected as 120Ω.

Using Eq. 3.54, the power dissipation value on the snubber is shown in Eq.
3.55.

𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
𝑃𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝐷𝑆 ) 𝑓𝑠𝑤 3.54

𝑃𝑠 = 300 ∗ 10−12 ∗ (137.5 + 0.8 + 443.35)2 ∗ 40 ∗ 103 = 4.05𝑊 3.55

3.2.4 Output capacitor value and output ripple calculations. The output
capacitor absorbs the voltage fluctuations on the rectified voltage at the output of the
converter and stabilises the converter when instantaneous fluctuations occur in the load
of the converter. It absorbs output voltage and current fluctuations when the input
voltage of the converter changes. The output capacitor should have low ESR and the
output voltage ripple of the converter should be kept below 100mV. Eq. 3.56 shows
𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆
the output ripple voltage 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 and Eq. 3.58 shows the calculation of Eq. 3.57. The
value of 𝑪𝒐 is chosen to be 220μF because it is easily available and inexpensive.

72
 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑝 (𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3.56
2𝐶𝑜 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

100𝑚𝑉 100𝑚𝑉
𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =2 3.57
𝑅𝑆𝑁𝑆 50𝑚Ω

𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 670 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 2 2

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = 253𝑚𝑉 3.58
2 ∗ 220 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 24

𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒
Since 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 value is not below 100mV, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 will decrease below 100mV
when the capacitor value is increased. The large capacitor value brings the cost
problem while increasing the capacitor volume. In this case, due to the cost and size,
the output voltage ripple is reduced below 100mV with a lower value, simple design
and passive low-pass LC filter design. The LC filter reduces the voltage fluctuations
caused by the material tolerance and transformer leakage inductances. In addition, the
LC filter reduces the losses and increases the efficiency of the converter by absorbing
the ringing on the diode without the need for a snubber circuit on the output diode. Eq.
3.58 shows the LC filter value and Eq. 3.60 shows the calculation of Eq. 3.59. In Eq.
𝐿𝐶
3.59 𝑓𝑐𝑜 is the filter cut-off frequency, 𝐿𝐿𝐶 is the filter inductance value and 𝐶𝐿𝐶 is the
filter capacitance value. The value of 𝐿𝐿𝐶 is determined as 33μH.

𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 3.59
2𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐶 𝐶𝐿𝐶

𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 1.8𝑘𝐻𝑧 3.60
2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ √33 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 440 ∗ 10−6

73
 The output capacitor value must be at least 220μF and if a capacitor higher than
220μF is used, it will reduce the cut-off frequency. Since the switching frequency of
the converter is 45kHz, the corner frequency is 4.5kHz and the output filter frequency
below 4.5kHz does not pose a problem, but it will further reduce the output ripple
voltages.

3.2.5 Output diode calculation. The output diode is used to rectify the AC
voltage in the secondary section of the transformer. The output diode affects the
efficiency, performance and reliability of the converter due to thermal performance.
The output diode should be selected from schottky diodes with low internal resistance.
Eq. 3.61 shows the minimum voltage value of the output diode and Eq. 3.62 shows the
calculation of Eq. 3.61.

𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑆
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + ) 3.61
𝑁𝑃

1
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 24 + (137.5 ∗ ) = 58.375VDC 3.62
4

In practice, the rated current of the output diode should be 50% higher than the
output current value. Eq. 3.63 shows the output diode current value.

𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑢𝑡 + (𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 50%) = 1.5 + (1.5 ∗ 50%) = 2.25𝐴 3.63

For reasons of cost and rail standards, MBRD10100CT schottky diode was
determined in accordance with the calculated output diode values. 𝑉𝑓 voltage is
0.8VDC, 125m Ω and maximum current is 10A under normal conditions specified in
the datasheet.

74
 Power losses occur on the output diode in the conduction state. Eq. 3.64 shows
the power loss on the output diode and Eq. 3.65 shows the calculation value of 3.64.

𝑃𝐷𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑓 ∗ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 3.64

𝑃𝐷𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.8 ∗ 1.5 = 1.2𝑊 3.65

3.3 Control Detail of LT8316

Within the scope of the thesis, information about the LT8316 integration used
in the flyback converter circuit is given in this section.

LT8316 is a high voltage controller that can provide up to 100W power without
the need for an opto-isolator. It is capable of constant current and voltage regulation
that can operate with minimum 16VDC and maximum 600VDC wide supply voltages.
Designs suitable for constant current and constant voltage requirements can be made
using LT8316. (Analog Devices, 2019) This reduces the number of products in stock
of a company and reduces warehouse costs. Fig. 18 shows the internal structure of the
LT8316 integration and Fig. 19 shows the pin configuration.

75
 Figure 18. LT8316 Internal Structure (Analog Devices, 2019)

Figure 19. LT8316 Pin Configuration (Analog Devices, 2019)

Pins 1, 2 and 3 provide the supply voltage and supply the integration. Pin 8,
Internal Gate Driver Bias Voltage, charges up to 12V using the current generated by
pins 1, 2 and 3 when the controller starts the process. When the controller is running,
BIAS pin 9 reduces the charging voltage to 10V. BIAS pin 9 provides power to the

76
INTVcc pin while absorbing the irregular input voltages to the controller. DCM pin
10 samples the output voltage by taking the derivative of the controller's switching
frequency waveform and determines the mode. Pin 11, Temperature Compensation,
regulates the waveforms and operation of the output diode and prevents temperature
dependent variations. 12 numbered Feedback pin determines the output voltage
according to the 1.22V reference voltage. Pin 13, Loop Compensation, uses the
feedback voltage to set the limit current while adjusting the switching frequency for
voltage and power distribution. Pin 14, Current Regulation/Soft-Start, enables the
controller to be switched on gradually with voltage to consume less energy. By flowing
10uA current through it, it compares it with the voltage on it and adjusts the output
current. Pin 16 Standby Mode Pin reduces the switching frequency for low power
mode. Pin 17, Enable/Undervoltage Lockout, determines the input voltage range. The
controller can be switched on and off in the desired range. Pin 18 Current Sense is used
for current mode and limitation. Pin 19 Gate Driver Output sends a signal to the
switching element to switch it on and off. Pins 15, 20 and 21 are connected to ground.
(Analog Devices, 2019)

77
3.4 Fyback Converter Circuit Simulation

In this part of the thesis, simulation is performed in LTspice programme

according to the calculated parameters and simulation results are shown.

Fig. 20 shows the simulation circuit diagram.

Figure 20. LT8316 LTspice Circuit Diagram

78
 Fig. 21 shows the output voltage. 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is observed as 24.2VDC in the input
voltage range of 77VDC-137.5VDC in simulation.

Figure 21. Ltspice Flyback Converter Output Voltage

Fig. 22 shows the MOSFET Drain-Source voltage. The 𝑉𝐷𝑆 voltage of the
MOSFET is observed as 180VDC.

Figure 22. Ltspice MOSFET Drain-Source Voltage

79
 Fig. 23 shows the MOSFET Drain-Source current is observed as 1.8A.

Figure 23. Ltspice MOSFET Drain-Source Current

Fig. 24 shows the primary current of the transformer. The value of 𝐼𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
observed as 1.5A.

Figure 24. Ltspice Transformer Primer Current

80
 Fig. 25 shows the voltage graph on the output diode. The voltage 𝑉𝐷 on the
output diode is observed as 24.9VDC and minimum -18VDC.

Figure 25. Ltspice Output Diode Voltage

Fig. 26 shows the current graph on the output diode. The current 𝐼𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 on the
output diode is observed as 6.09A.

Figure 26 Ltspice Flyback Converter Output Diode Current

81
3.5 EMC Filter Design

In this section, an EMC filter in accordance with railway standards is designed,

tested and verified. In addition, EN 50155 Railways Applications, TS EN 50121-3-2
standards are mentioned.

EN 50155 standard railway power converter 110VDC applications;

- 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltage range,

- At nominal 110VDC input voltage,

- 24VDC or 12VDC output voltage

power supplies are used in the conditions of -40°C / +70°C.

The power supply temperature range should be -40°C / +70°C.

TS EN 50121-3-2 EMC requirements in DC power applications;

- At frequencies between 150kHZ-500kHz, there should be no noise at db higher than

99 dBμV peak value.

- At frequencies between 500kHz-30MHz, there should be no noise at db higher than

93 dBμV peak value.

EMC filter should be designed according to the standards while the line
impedance for the EMC filter and the input impedance of the designed converter must
be determined. The impedance of the EMC filter should not be greater than the
impedance of the converter. If the filter impedance is greater than the converter
impedance, the converter will not operate correctly because the frequencies will be
over-cut. In the filter, two filter designs are made as differential mode and common
mode. Differantial mode is used for low frequencies and common mode is used for
high frequencies.

82
 In order to find the input impedance of the flyback converter, it is necessary to
calculate the input current. Eq. 3.66 specifies the input current of the flyback converter
while in Eq. 3.67, the input current is calculated and η is set as 80%.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 3.66
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜂

24 ∗ 1.5
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = = 0.32Ω 3.67
137.5 ∗ 0.8

Eq. 3.68 shows the input impedance of the circuit while in calculated. Eq. 3.69.
In Eq. 3.68, 𝑍𝑖𝑛 indicates the input impedance of the converter.

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 3.68
𝐼𝑖𝑛

137.5
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = = 429.6875Ω ≅ 430Ω 3.69
0.32

Eq. 3.70 shows the impedance of the EMC filter circuit while calculated in
equation 3.71. In Eq. 3.70, 𝑍𝐸𝑀𝐶 is the impedance of the EMC filter.

1
𝑍𝐸𝑀𝐶 = ∗𝑍 3.70
10 𝑖𝑛

1
𝑍𝐸𝑀𝐶 = ∗ 430 = 43Ω ≅ 40Ω 3.71
10

83
 The filter impedance cannot be higher than 40Ω. If it is higher than 40Ω, the
switching frequency of the circuit changes and the converter does not work and gives
different responses. After the impedance values are determined, the minimum
capacitance value is found on the impedance paper and the maximum inductance value
is determined with the low pass filter structure. The minimum capacitance value for
the EMC filter 𝐶𝐷𝑀 is 1.5µF. For differential mode, the maximum 𝐿𝐷𝑀 value is
determined by selecting 𝐶𝐷𝑀 value 1.5µF in Eq. 3.72. It is calculated in Eq. 3.73. The
cut-off frequency of the EMC filter is one tenth of the switching frequency. In Eq.
𝐸𝑀𝐶
3.75, 𝑓𝑐𝑜 is the cut-off frequency of the EMC filter, 𝐿𝐷𝑀 is the differential mode
inductance value and 𝐶𝐷𝑀 is the differential mode capacitance value.

𝐸𝑀𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 3.72
2𝜋√𝐿𝐷𝑀 𝐶𝐷𝑀

1
4.5 ∗ 103 = , 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑀 = 833𝑢𝐻 3.73
2𝜋√ 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑀 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 10−6

Capacitors with the calculated capacitance value are not available due to cost,
stock and capacitance value. In order to avoid this problem, the filter impedance can
be reduced by increasing the capacitor value. Thus, 𝐶𝐷𝑀 is set as 10uF and 𝐿𝐷𝑀 value
is set as 150µH. In order to better dampen the noise in the EMC filter, an electrolytic
capacitor of at least 5 times the value of 𝐶𝐷𝑀 is added. Eq. 3.74 shows the minimum
𝐶𝐷 value while in Eq. 3.75 calculated and in Eq. 3.74 𝐶𝐷 refers to the dump capacitor.

𝐶𝐷 > 5𝐶𝐷𝑀 3.74

𝐶𝐷 > 50𝑢𝐹 3.75

84
𝐶𝐷 is determined to be 150uF.

The magnitude of the switching frequency is important when designing the

common mode. If the switching frequency is small, the common mode inductance
value should also be small. Within the scope of the thesis, 744822301 coded Common
Mode Choke produced by Würth company was selected. By looking at the datasheet,
the minimum common mode capacitor value is determined by using Eq. 3.76 since it
has a value of 1mH and calculated in the Eq. 3.77. In Eq. 3.76, 𝐿𝐶𝑀 indicates the
𝑚𝑖𝑛
common mode inductance value and 𝐶𝐶𝑀 indicates the common mode minimum
capacitance value.

𝐸𝑀𝐶
1
𝑓𝑐𝑜 = 3.76
𝑚𝑖𝑛
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝐶𝐶𝑀

1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
4.5 ∗ 103 = , 𝐶𝐶𝑀 = 1.25𝑝𝐹 3.77
𝑚𝑖𝑛
2𝜋√1 ∗ 103 ∗ 𝐶𝐶𝑀

𝐶𝐶𝑀 value is selected with a value of 1uF.

Fig. 27 shows the EMC filter circuit designed according to the capacitance and
inductance values determined.

Figure 27 EMC Filter Circuit

85
 Chapter 4

Experimental Results

4.1 Introduction

In this part of the thesis, the converter simulated in LTspice programme with
theoretical calculations has been verified and a two-layer PCB has been drawn in
EASY-PC programme for practical application. Fig. 28 shows the prototype two-layer
PCB. The PCB was printed on a copper plate on a Promat200 machine and the
components were soldered and assembled on the PCB. Full load, low load, low
temperature and high temperature (-40C° and +70C°) tests were performed on the PCB
to verify the converter in a laboratory environment. Thermal images of the prototype
circuit were measured with FLUKE brand Ti9 model thermal camera and oscilloscope
images were measured with FLUKE brand 199B model oscilloscope and Twintex
brand T5100 model two probes. The results of the prototype circuit without EMC filter
and with EMC filter are also given below. The current measured regions were
calculated using ohm's law with the determined resistance value.

Figure 28. Prototype Flyback Converter

86
4.2 Input and Output Voltages at 100% (1.5A) Load

The input and output voltages of the designed converter at 77VDC, 110VDC
and 137.5VDC input voltages at 1.5A 100% load are shown with oscilloscope as
indicated in Table 1.

Fig. 29 shows the output voltage at 100% load when 77VDC minimum input
voltage is applied. In Fig. 29, symbol A indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and
symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 29 is analysed, 24.4VDC output voltage is
generated when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback converter at
100% load.

Figure 29. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Minimum Input Voltage (77VDC)

87
 Fig. 30 shows the output voltage at 100% load when 110VDC nominal input
voltage is applied to the converter. In Fig. 30, symbol A indicates the 110VDC input
voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage value. Fig. 30 is analysed,
24.4VDC output voltage is generated when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied
to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 30. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

88
 Fig. 31 shows the output voltage at 100% load when 137.5VDC maximum
input voltage is applied to the converter. In Fig. 31, symbol A indicates the input
voltage value of 37.5VDC and symbol B indicates the output voltage value. Fig. 31 is
analysed, 24.4VDC output voltage is generated when 137.5VDC maximum input
voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 31 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

89
4.3 Output Ripple Voltages at 100% Load (1.5A)

The output ripple voltage value specified in Table 1 must be less than 100mV.
Fig. 32 shows the output ripple voltage at 77VDC minimum input voltage and 100%
(1.5A) load. In Fig. 32, symbol A indicates the 77VDC minimum input voltage value
applied to the converter and symbol B indicates the output ripple voltage value. Fig.
32 is analysed, it is observed that the minimum peak value of output ripple is -12.4mV,
the maximum peak value is 8.80mV and the peak-to-peak value is 21.2mV.

Figure 32 Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

90
 Fig. 33 shows the output ripple voltage at 110VDC nominal input voltage and
100% load. In Fig. 33, symbol A indicates the 110VDC nominal input voltage value
applied to the converter and symbol B indicates the output ripple voltage value. Fig.
33 is analysed, it is observed that the minimum peak value of output ripple is -12.8mV,
the maximum peak value is 8.40mV and the peak-to-peak value is 21.2mV.

Figure 33. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

91
 Fig. 34 shows the output ripple voltage at 137.5VDC maximum input voltage
and 100% load. In Fig. 34, symbol A indicates the maximum input voltage value of
137.5VDC applied to the converter and symbol B indicates the output ripple voltage
value. Fig. 34 is analysed, it is observed that the minimum value of output ripple is -
9.60mV, the maximum value is 11.6mV and the peak-to-peak value is 21.2mV.

Figure 34. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

92
4.4 Input and Output Voltages at 20% Load (300mA)

The input and output voltages of the designed converter are displayed on the
oscilloscope at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages at 300mA low load,
in other words at 20% load. Fig. 35 shows the output voltage at 20% (300mA) load
when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 35, symbol A indicates the
77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 35 is
analysed, 24.4VDC output voltage is generated when 77VDC minimum input voltage
is applied to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 35. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at
Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

93
 Fig. 36 shows the output voltage at 20% load when 110VDC nominal input
voltage is applied to the converter. In Fig. 36, symbol A indicates the 110VDC input
voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 36 is analysed, 24.4VDC
output voltage is generated when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the
flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 36. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at
Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

94
 Fig. 37 shows the output voltage at 20% load when a maximum input voltage
of 137.5VDC is applied to the converter. In Fig. 37, symbol A indicates 137.5VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates output voltage. Fig. 37 is analysed,
24.4VDC output voltage is generated when 137.5VDC nominal input voltage is
applied to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 37. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at
Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

95
4.5 Output Ripple Voltages at 20% Load (300mA)

The output ripple voltage value specified in Table 1 should be less than 100mV
even when the converter is operating at specified input voltages and low load. Fig. 38
shows the output ripple voltage at 77VDC minimum input voltage and 20% (300mA)
load. In Fig. 38, symbol A indicates the 77VDC minimum input voltage value applied
to the converter and symbol B indicates the output ripple voltage value. Fig. 38 is
analysed, it is observed that the minimum value of output ripple is -3.20mV, the
maximum value is 3.60mV and the peak-to-peak value is 6.80mV.

Figure 38. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 20% Load
(300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

96
 Fig. 39 shows the output ripple voltage at 110VDC nominal input voltage and
20% load. In Fig. 39, symbol A indicates the 110VDC nominal input voltage value
applied to the converter and symbol B indicates the output ripple voltage value. Fig.
39 is analysed, it is observed that the minimum value of output ripple is -4.80mV, the
maximum value is 6.40mV and the peak to peak value is 11.2mV.

Figure 39. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 20% Load
(300mA) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

97
 Fig. 40 shows the output ripple voltage at 137.5VDC maximum input voltage
and 20% load. In Fig. 40, symbol A indicates the maximum input voltage value of
137.5VDC applied to the converter and symbol B indicates the output ripple voltage
value. Fig. 40 is analysed, it is observed that the minimum value of output ripple is -
9.60mV, the maximum value is 11.6mV and the peak to peak value is 21.2mV.

Figure 40. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Ripple Voltage at 20% Load
(300mA) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

98
4.6 Transformer Secondary and Tertiary Winding Voltages at 100% Load (1.5A)

The current and voltage generated in the secondary and tertiary windings of the
transformer at 100% load at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages are
displayed on the oscilloscope.

Fig. 41 shows the secondary voltage of the transformer at 100% load when
77VDC minimum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 41, symbol A indicates the 77VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the secondary voltage. Fig. 41 shows that
the secondary voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value of 31.2VDC,
minimum peak value of -24.8VDC, peak-to-peak 56VDC, 25VRMS and a wave period
of 35.20µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback converter at
100% load.

Figure 41. Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

99
 Fig. 42 shows the secondary voltage of the transformer at 100% load when
110VDC nominal input voltage is applied. In Fig. 42, symbol A indicates the 110VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the secondary voltage. Fig. 42 shows that
the secondary voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value of 31.2VDC,
minimum peak value of-35.2VDC, peak to peak 66.4VDC, 29.7VRMS and a wave
period of 25.6µs when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 100% load.

Figure 42. Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

100
 Fig. 43 shows the secondary voltage of the transformer at 100% load when
137.5VDC maximum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 43, symbol A indicates the
137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the secondary voltage. Fig. 43
shows that the secondary voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value of
31.2VDC, minimum peak value of -42.4VDC, peak to peak 73.6VDC, 32.7VRMS and
a wave period of 22µs when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 100% load.

Figure 43. Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 100%

Load (1.5A) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

101
 Fig. 44 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer at 100% load
when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 44, symbol A indicates the
77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the tertiary winding voltage. Fig.
44 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value
of 24VDC, minimum peak value of -12.8VDC, peak to peak 36.8VDC, 12.5VRMS
and a wave period of 34.60µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the
flyback converter at 100% load,

Figure 44. Transformer Tertiary Winding Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at Prototype
Flyback Converter Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

102
 Fig. 45 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer at 100% load
when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied. In Fig. 45, symbol A indicates
110VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates tertiary winding voltage. Fig. 45
shows that the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value
of 14VDC, minimum peak value of -18.8VDC, peak to peak 32.8VDC, 12.1VRMS
and a wave period of 25µs when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the
flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 45. Transformer Tertiary Winding Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at Prototype
Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

103
 Fig. 46 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer at 100% load
when a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC is applied. In Fig. 46, symbol A indicates
137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates tertiary winding voltage. Fig.
46 shows that the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak
value of 23.2VDC, minimum peak value of -29.6VDC, peak to peak 52.8VDC,
16.4VRMS and a wave period of 21.40µs when a maximum input voltage of
137.5VDC is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 46. Transformer Tertiary Winding Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at Prototype
Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

104
4.7 Voltage in Secondary and Tertiary Winding of Transformer at 20% Load
(300mA)

The voltages on the secondary and tertiary windings of the transformer at 20%
load at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages are displayed on the
oscilloscope.

Fig. 47 shows the secondary voltage of the transformer at 20% load when
77VDC minimum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 47, symbol A indicates the 77VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the secondary voltage. Fig. 47 analysed,
the secondary voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value of 30.4VDC,
minimum peak value of -24VDC, peak to peak 54.4VDC, 21.6VRMS and a wave
period of 20.60µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 20% load.

Figure 47. Prototype Flyback Converter Transformer Secondary Voltage at 20%

Load (300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

105
 Fig. 48 shows the secondary voltage of the transformer at 20% load when
110VDC nominal input voltage is applied. In Fig. 48, symbol A indicates the 110VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the secondary voltage. Fig. 48 analysed,
the secondary voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value of 31.2VDC,
minimum peak value of -33.6VDC, peak to peak 64.8VDC, 24VRMS and a wave
period of 20.60µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 20% load.

Figure 48. Transformer Secondary Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at Prototype

Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

106
 Fig. 49 shows the secondary voltage of the transformer at 20% load when a
maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC is applied. In Fig. 49, symbol A indicates the
137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the secondary voltage. Fig. 49
is analysed, when 137.5VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 20% load, the secondary voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak
value of 30.4VDC, minimum peak value of -41.6VDC, peak to peak 72VDC,
24.4VRMS and a wave period of 23.60µs.

Figure 49. Transformer Secondary Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at Maximum

(137.5VDC) Input Voltage of Prototype Flyback Converter

107
 Fig. 50 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer at 20% load when
77VDC minimum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 50, symbol A indicates the 77VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the tertiary winding voltage. Fig. 50
analysed, the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value
of 16VDC, minimum peak value of -24VDC, peak-to-peak 40VDC, 11VRMS and a
wave period of 21.20µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 20% load.

Figure 50. Prototype Flyback Converter Tertiary Winding Voltage of Transformer at

20% Load (300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

108
 Fig. 51 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer at 20% load when
110VDC nominal input voltage is applied. In Fig. 51, symbol A indicates 110VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates tertiary winding voltage. Fig. 51 analysed,
the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value of
17.6VDC, minimum peak value of -33.6VDC, peak to peak 51.2VDC, 12VRMS and
a wave period of 22.20µs when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the
flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 51. Tertiary Winding Voltage of Transformer at 20% Load (300mA) at

Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage of Prototype Flyback Converter

109
 Fig. 52 shows the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer at 20% load when
a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC is applied. In Fig. 52, symbol A indicates
137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates tertiary winding voltage. Fig.
52 analysed, the tertiary winding voltage of the transformer has a maximum peak value
of 18.4VDC, minimum peak value of -35.2VDC, peak to peak 53.6VDC, 12.1VRMS
and a wave period of 23.60µs when a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC is applied
to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 52. Tertiary Winding Voltage of Transformer at 20% Load (300mA) at

Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage of Prototype Flyback Converter

110
4.8 PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A)

The PWM signal receives feedback according to the input voltage value and
sends it to the Drain end of the MOSFET from the Gate pin of the LT8316 integration.
The MOSFET switches on and off according to the fill rate of the signal coming to the
Drain terminal. The PWM signal generated at the GATE terminal of the LT8316
integration at 100% load at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages is
displayed with an oscilloscope.

Fig. 53 shows the PWM signal at 100% load when 77VDC minimum input
voltage is applied and symbol A indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol
B indicates the PWM signal.

Figure 53. Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

111
 Fig. 54 shows the PWM signal at 100% load when 110VDC nominal input
voltage is applied and symbol A indicates the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol
B indicates the PWM signal.

Figure 54. Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

112
 Fig. 55 shows the PWM signal at 100% load when 137.5VDC maximum input
voltage is applied and symbol A indicates 137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol
B indicates PWM signal.

Figure 55. Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

113
4.9 PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA)

The PWM signal generated at the GATE end of the LT8316 integration at 20%
load at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages is displayed with an
oscilloscope.

Fig. 56 shows the PWM signal at 20% load when 77VDC minimum input
voltage is applied and the symbol A indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and the
symbol B indicates the PWM signal.

Figure 56. Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) at
Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

114
 Fig. 57 shows the PWM signal at 20% load when 110VDC nominal input
voltage is applied and symbol A indicates the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol
B indicates the PWM signal.

Figure 57. Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) at
Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

115
 Fig. 58 shows the PWM signal at 20% load when a maximum input voltage of
137.5VDC is applied and the symbol A indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage value
and the symbol B indicates the PWM signal.

Figure 58. Prototype Flyback Converter PWM Signal at 20% Load (300mA) at
Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

116
4.10 MOSFET Voltage, Current and Snubber

The drain pin of the MOSFET, the switching element of the designed flyback
converter, switches by sending a PWM signal to the primary end of the flyback
transformer. In addition, an input voltage signal is applied to the primary of the
transformer. The input voltage signal and PWM signal are collected on the drain pin
of the MOSFET. The PWM signal and the input voltage signal collected at the drain
pin of the MOSFET generate ringing when the MOSFET is switched on and off. A
snubber circuit was designed to dampen the ringing and applied to the prototype
circuit. When the MOSFET is switched on, the current flowing through it passes
through the drain-source region. The current on the MOSFET was found by the voltage
falling on 40mΩ connected to the source pin of the MOSFET using ohm's law. The
designed converter is shown with oscilloscope at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC
input voltages without snubber, with snubber and currents on MOSFET at 100% load.
At 100% load, the ringing is at maximum level and if the ringing at 100% load is
damped, the ringing at 20% load is improved. For this reason, currents at 20% load are
not shown.

117
 4.10.1 MOSFET voltage, current and snubber at 100% load (1.5A). Fig.
59 shows the voltage signal without adding snubber design on the MOSFET at 100%
load when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied and in Fig. 59 symbol A indicates
the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the voltage signal without
snubbers. Fig. 59 is analysed, the maximum peak value of the voltage on the MOSFET
without snubber design is 88VDC, the minimum peak value is -364VDC, the peak-to-
peak value is 452VDC, the period of a wave formed by ringing is 34.80µs and the
ringing period is 330ns when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 100% load.

Figure 59. Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage without Snubbers at

100% Load (1.5A) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

118
 Fig. 61 shows the voltage signal by adding the snubber design on the MOSFET
at 100% load when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied and in Fig. 61 the
symbol A indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and the symbol B indicates the
voltage signal generated by the snubber ringing. The maximum peak value of the
voltage on the MOSFET is 108VDC, the minimum peak value is -168VDC, the peak-
to-peak value is 276VDC, the wave period with ringing is 21.60µs and the ringing
period is 150ns when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter with snubber design at 100% load. When the snubber design is added, the
wavelength decreases from 34.80µs to 21.60µs, the ringing period decreases from
330ns to 150ns, the ringing is damped and the total voltage on the MOSFET decreases
from 452VDC to approximately half of 276VDC.

Figure 60. Prototype Flyback Converter Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage at 100%
Load (1.5A) MOSFET Voltage with Snubber Design

119
 Fig. 61 shows the signal passing through the drain-source section when the
MOSFET is switched on at a minimum input voltage of 77VDC. As mentioned before,
due to the lack of a current probe, the current value of 2.05A was found by calculating
the signal on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the source pin of the MOSFET using
ohm's law in Eq. 4.1. In Fig. 61, peak currents occurred at a time less than 10ns. Since
the duration value is very small, only positive directional currents were calculated by
ignoring it.

Figure 61. Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Over 40mΩ at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

82 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉/𝐼 = = 2.05𝐴 4.1
40 ∗ 10−3

120
 Fig. 61 shows the voltage signal without adding snubber design on the
MOSFET at 100% load when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied and in Fig.
62, symbol A indicates the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the
voltage signal without snubbers. Fig. 61 is analysed, the maximum peak value of the
voltage on the MOSFET without snubber design is 132VDC, the minimum peak value
is -304VDC, the peak-to-peak is 436VDC, a wave period of 24.90µs and the ringing
period is 250ns when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 100% load.

Figure 62. Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage without Snubbers at

100% Load (1.5A) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

121
 Fig. 63 shows the voltage signal by adding snubber design on the MOSFET at
100% load when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied and in Fig. 63, symbol A
indicates the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the voltage signal
generated by snubberised ringing. Fig. 63 analysed, the maximum peak value of the
voltage on the MOSFET is 324VDC, the minimum peak value is -28VDC, the peak-
to-peak voltage is 352VDC, the wave period is 14.80µs and the ringing period is 180ns
when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback converter with snubber
design at 100% load. When the snubber design was added, the wavelength decreased
from 24.90µs to 14.80µs, the resonance decreased from 250ns to 180ns, the resonance
was damped and the total voltage on the MOSFET decreased from 436VDC to
352VDC.

Figure 63. Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage with Snubber Design at
100% Load (1.5A) at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

122
 Fig. 64 shows the signal passing through the drain-source section when the
MOSFET is switched on at 110VDC nominal input voltage. The current value was
found to be 1.75A by calculating the signal on the 40mΩ resistor using ohm's law in
Eq. 4.2. In Fig. 64, peak currents occur in less than 10ns. Since the time value is very
small, only positive directional currents are calculated by ignoring it.

Figure 64. Prototype Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at 100%
Load (1.5A) Over 40mΩ

70 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉/𝑅 = = 1.75𝐴 4.2
40 ∗ 10−3

123
 Fig. 65 shows the voltage signal without adding the snubber design on the
MOSFET at 100% load when the maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC is applied and
in Fig. 65, symbol A indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B
indicates the voltage signal generated by ringing without snubber. Fig. 65 analysed,
the maximum peak value of the voltage on the MOSFET without snubber design is
168VDC, the minimum peak value is -292VDC, the peak-to-peak value is 460VDC,
the period of a wave formed by ringing is 20.40µs and the ringing period is 330ns
when a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC is applied to the flyback converter at
100% load.

Figure 65. Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage without Snubbers at

100% Load (1.5A) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

124
 Fig. 66 shows the voltage signal by adding snubber design on the MOSFET at
100% load when 137.5VDC nominal input voltage is applied. In Fig. 66, symbol A
indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the voltage signal
generated by snubberised ringing. Fig. 66 analysed, the maximum peak value of the
voltage on the MOSFET is 172VDC, the minimum peak value is -228VDC, the peak-
to-peak is 400VDC, a wave period of 22µs and a ringing period of 260ns when
110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback converter with snubber design
at 100% load. When the snubber design is added, the wavelength increases from
24.90µs to 14.80µs. The ringing is reduced from 250ns to 180ns and the total voltage
across the MOSFET is reduced from 460VDC to 400VDC.

Figure 66. Prototype Flyback Converter MOSFET Voltage with Snubber Design at
100% Load (1.5A) at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

125
 Fig. 67 shows the signal passing through the drain-source section when the
MOSFET is switched on at a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC. The current value
was found to be 1.6A by calculating the signal on the 40mΩ resistor using ohm's law
in Eq. 4.3. In Fig. 67, peak currents occur at times less than 10ns. Since the time value
is very small, only positive directional currents are calculated by ignoring it.

Figure 67. Prototype Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage at

100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ

64 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉/𝑅 = = 1.6𝐴 4.3
40 ∗ 10−3

126
 4.10.2 MOSFET current at 20% load (300mA). Fig. 68 shows the signal
passing through the drain-source section when the MOSFET is switched on at 77VDC
minimum input voltage and 20% load. The current value of the MOSFET at low load
was calculated in Eq. 4.4 using ohm's law on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the source
pin of the MOSFET and the current value was found to be 1A. In Fig. 68, peak currents
occur at a time less than 10ns. Since the duration value is very small, only positive
directional currents are calculated by ignoring it.

Figure 68. Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage
at 20% Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ

40 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉/𝑅 = = 1𝐴 4.4
40 ∗ 10−3

127
 Fig. 69 shows the signal passing through the drain-source section when the
MOSFET is switched on at 110VDC nominal input voltage and 100% load. The
current value was found to be 1.2A by calculating the signal across a 40mΩ resistor
using ohm's law in Eq. 4.5. In Fig. 69, peak currents occur at times less than 10ns.
Since the time value is very small, only positive directional currents are calculated by
ignoring it.

Figure 69. Prototype Flyback Converter at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at 20%
Load (300mA) Voltage over 40mΩ

48 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉/𝑅 = = 1.2𝐴 4.5
40 ∗ 10−3

128
 Fig. 70 shows the signal passing through the drain-source section when the
MOSFET is switched on at a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC and 100% load.
The current value was found to be 1A by calculating the signal across a 40mΩ resistor
using ohm's law in Eq. 4.5. In Fig. 70, peak currents occur at times less than 10ns.
Since the duration value is very small, only positive directional currents are calculated
by ignoring it.

Figure 70. Prototype Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage at

20% Load (300mA) Voltage over 40mΩ

40 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉/𝑅 = = 1𝐴 4.5
40 ∗ 10−3

129
4.11 Output Diode Voltage and Current

The anode pin of the output diode is connected to the secondary of the
transformer. For this reason, the current and voltage in the secondary of the
transformer pass through the output diode. The current on the output diode was found
with the voltage falling on 40mΩ using ohm's law. The voltage and current signals on
the output diode at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages at 20% and 100%
load are shown with an oscilloscope.

130
 4.11.1 Output diode voltage and current at 100% load (1.5A). Fig. 71 shows
the voltage signal on the output diode at 100% load at 77VDC minimum input voltage.
In Fig. 71, symbol A indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates
the output diode voltage. Fig. 71 analysed, the secondary voltage of the transformer,
in other words the voltage on the output diode, has a maximum peak value of
5.60VDC, minimum peak value of -44.8VDC, peak to peak 50.4VDC, 30.5VRMS and
a wave period of 20µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 100% load.

Figure 71. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

131
 Fig. 72 shows the voltage signal on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer at 100% load at 77VDC minimum input voltage. In Eq.
4.6, the current on the output diode is calculated as 7.6A. In Fig. 72, symbol A
indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode
voltage.

Figure 72. Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage
at 100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ

𝑉 304 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷 = = = 7.6𝐴 4.6
𝑅 40 ∗ 10−3

132
 Fig. 73 shows the voltage signal on the output diode at 100% load at 110VDC
nominal input voltage. In Fig. 73, symbol A indicates the 110VDC input voltage value
and symbol B indicates the output diode voltage. Fig. 73 is analysed, the secondary
voltage of the transformer, in other words, the voltage across the output diode has a
maximum peak value of 5.60VDC, minimum peak value of -56.8VDC, peak to peak
62.4VDC, 33.10VRMS and a wave period of 17.20µs when 110VDC minimum input
voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 73. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

133
 Fig. 74 shows the voltage signal on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer at 100% load at 110VDC nominal input voltage. In Eq.
4.7, the current on the output diode is calculated as 6A. In Fig. 74, symbol A indicates
the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode voltage.

Figure 74. Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage
at 100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ

𝑉 240 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷 = = = 6𝐴 4.7
𝑅 40 ∗ 10−3

134
 Fig. 75 shows the voltage signal on the output diode at 100% load at 137.5VDC
maximum input voltage. In Fig. 75, symbol A indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage
value and symbol B indicates the output diode voltage. Fig. 75 is analysed, the
secondary voltage of the transformer, in other words the voltage on the output diode,
has a maximum peak value of 5.60VDC, minimum peak value of -61.6VDC, peak to
peak 67.2VDC, 35.10VRMS and a wave period of 18.80µs when 137.5VDC
maximum input voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 75. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

135
 Fig. 76 shows the voltage signal across the 40mΩ resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer at 100% load at a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC.
In Eq. 4.8, the current on the output diode is calculated as 5A. In Fig. 76, symbol A
indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode
voltage.

Figure 76. Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Maximum (137.5VDC) Input

Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) Voltage Over 40mΩ

𝑉 200 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷 = = = 5𝐴 4.8
𝑅 40 ∗ 10−3

136
 4.11.2 Output diode voltage and current at 20% load (300mA). Fig. 77
shows the voltage signal on the output diode at 20% load at 77VDC minimum input
voltage. In Fig. 77, symbol A indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol B
indicates the output diode voltage. Fig. 77 analysed, the secondary voltage of the
transformer, in other words the voltage on the output diode, has a maximum peak value
of 4.80VDC, minimum peak value of -48VDC, peak to peak 50.4VDC, 32.9VRMS
and a wave period of 20.60µs when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the
flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 77. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 20% Load
(300mA) at Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage

137
 Fig. 78 shows the voltage signal on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer at 20% load at 77VDC minimum input voltage. In Eq.
4.9, the current on the output diode is calculated as 2.4A. In Fig. 78, symbol A
indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode
voltage.

Figure 78. Prototype Flyback Converter Voltage Minimum (77VDC) Input Voltage
at 20% Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ

𝑉 96 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷 = = = 2.4𝐴 4.9
𝑅 40 ∗ 10−3

138
 Fig. 79 shows the voltage signal on the output diode at 20% load at 110VDC
nominal input voltage. In Fig. 79, symbol A indicates the 110VDC input voltage value
and symbol B indicates the output diode voltage. Fig. 79 is analysed, the secondary
voltage of the transformer, in other words the voltage on the output diode, has a
maximum peak value of 6.40VDC, minimum peak value of -57.6VDC, peak to peak
65VDC, 34.4VRMS and a wave period of 20.60µs when 110VDC minimum input
voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Şekil 79. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 20% Load (300mA)
at Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage

139
 Fig. 80 shows the voltage signal on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer at 20% load at 110VDC nominal input voltage. In Eq.
4.10, the current on the output diode is calculated as 2.6A. In Fig. 80, symbol A
indicates the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode
voltage.

Figure 80. Prototype Flyback Converter Nominal (110VDC) Input Voltage at 20%
Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ

𝑉 104 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷 = = = 2.6𝐴 4.10
𝑅 40 ∗ 10−3

140
 Fig. 81 shows the voltage signal on the output diode at 20% load at a maximum
input voltage of 137.5VDC. In Fig. 81, symbol A indicates the 137.5VDC input
voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode voltage. Fig. 81 is analysed, the
secondary voltage of the transformer, in other words the voltage on the output diode,
has a maximum peak value of 6.40VDC, minimum peak value of -57.6VDC, peak to
peak 65VDC, 34.4VRMS and a wave period of 20.60µs when 137.5VDC minimum
input voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Şekil 81. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Diode Voltage at 20% Load (300mA)
at Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage

141
 Fig. 82 shows the voltage signal on the 40mΩ resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer at 20% load at a maximum input voltage of 137.5VDC.
In Eq. 4.11, the current on the output diode is calculated as 2.6A. In Fig. 82, symbol
A indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output diode
voltage.

Figure 82. Prototype Flyback Converter Maximum (137.5VDC) Input Voltage at

20% Load (300mA) Voltage Over 40mΩ

𝑉 104 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝐷 = = = 2.6𝐴 4.10
𝑅 40 ∗ 10−3

142
4.12 Input and Output Voltages at 100% (1.5A) Load in DIM Mode

The input and output voltages of the designed converter in DIM mode at
77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages at 1.5A full load, in other words, at
100% load are shown. Fig. 83 shows the output voltage at 100% load when 77VDC
minimum input voltage is applied in DIM mode. In Fig. 83, symbol A indicates the
77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 83
analysed, 20.4VDC output voltage is generated when 77VDC minimum input voltage
is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 83. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Minimum Input Voltage (77VDC) in DIM Mode

143
 Fig. 84 shows the output voltage at 100% (1.5A) load when 110VDC nominal
input voltage is applied in DIM mode. In Fig. 84, symbol A indicates the 110VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. 20.4VDC output
voltage is generated when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at 100% load.

Figure 84. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Nominal Input Voltage (110VDC) in DIM Mode

144
 Fig. 85 shows the output voltage at 100% (1.5A) load when 137.5VDC
maximum input voltage is applied in DIM mode. In Fig. 85, symbol A indicates the
137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 85
analysed, 20.4VDC output voltage is generated when 137.5VDC maximum input
voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 85. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) in DIM Mode

145
4.13 Input and Output Voltages at 20% (300mA) Load in DIM Mode

The input and output voltages of the designed converter are shown in DIM
mode at 77VDC, 110VDC and 137.5VDC input voltages at 300mA low load, in other
words at 100% load. Fig. 86 shows the output voltage at 20% (300mA) load when
77VDC minimum input voltage is applied in DIM mode. In Fig. 86, symbol A
indicates the 77VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage.
Fig. 86 analysed, 20.3VDC output voltage is generated when 77VDC minimum input
voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 100% load.

Figure 86. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at
Minimum Input Voltage (77VDC) in DIM Mode

146
 Fig. 87 shows the output voltage at 20% (300mA) load when 110VDC nominal
input voltage is applied in DIM mode. In Fig. 87, symbol A indicates the 110VDC
input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 87 analysed,
20.4VDC output voltage is generated when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied
to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 87. Output Voltage at 20% Load (300mA) at Nominal Input Voltage
(110VDC) in Prototype Flyback Converter DIM Mode

147
 Fig. 88 shows the output voltage at 20% (300mA) load when 137.5VDC
maximum input voltage is applied in DIM mode. In Fig. 88, symbol A indicates the
137.5VDC input voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 88
analysed, 20.4VDC output voltage is generated when 137.5VDC maximum input
voltage is applied to the flyback converter at 20% load.

Figure 88. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at 100% Load (1.5A) at
Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) in DIM Mode

148
4.14 Voltage Regulations

The output voltage change of the flyback converter between 77VDC-

137.5VDC voltages is shown with oscilloscope at 100% load, 20% and DIM mode.

4.14.1 Voltage regulation at 100% (1.5A) load. Fig. 89 shows the output
voltage change at 100% (1.5A) load when 77VDC-137.5VDC maximum input voltage
range is applied. In Fig. 89, symbol A indicates the change in input voltage value and
symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 89 analysed, a constant 24.4VDC output
voltage occurs between 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltages at 100% load to the flyback
converter.

Figure 89. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage Regulation at 100% Load
(1.5A) between 77VDC-137.5VDC Input Voltage Range

149
 4.14.2 Voltage regulation at 20%(300mA) load. Fig. 90 shows the output
voltage change at 20% (300mA) load when 77VDC-137.5VDC maximum input
voltage range is applied. In Fig. 90, symbol A indicates the change in input voltage
value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 90 analysed, a constant 24.4VDC
output voltage is generated between 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltages at 20% load to
the flyback converter.

Figure 90. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage Regulation at 20% Load
(300mA) between 77VDC-137.5VDC Input Voltage Range

150
 4.14.3 Voltage regulation in DIM mode at 100%(1.5A) load. Fig. 91 shows
the output voltage variation at 100% (1.5A) load when 77VDC-137.5VDC maximum
input voltage range is applied while the converter is operating in DIM mode. In Fig.
91, symbol A indicates the change in input voltage value and symbol B indicates the
output voltage. Fig. 91 is analysed, a constant 20.4VDC output voltage is generated
between 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltages at 100% load to the flyback converter.

Figure 91. Output Voltage Regulation at 100% Load (1.5A) between 77VDC-
137.5VDC Input Voltage Range in Prototype Flyback Converter DIM Mode

151
 4.14.4 Voltage regulation in DIM mode at 20% (300mA) load. Fig. 92
shows the output voltage variation at 20% (300mA) load when the converter is
operating in DIM mode with a maximum input voltage range of 77VDC-137.5VDC.
In Fig. 92, symbol A indicates the change in input voltage value and symbol B
indicates the output voltage. Fig. 92 analysed, a constant 20.3VDC output voltage is
generated between 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltages at 20% load to the flyback
converter.

Figure 92. Output Voltage Regulation at 20% Load (300mA) between 77VDC-
137.5VDC Input Voltage Range in DIM Mode of Prototype Flyback Converter

152
4.15 No-Load Condition

The input and output voltages of the designed converter at 77VDC, 110VDC
and 137.5VDC are shown with oscilloscope. In addition, output voltage regulation
between 77VDC-137.5VDC voltages without load connected to the converter is shown
with oscilloscope.

4.15.1 Minimum input voltage (77VDC) output voltage in no load

condition. Fig. 93 shows the output voltage at no-load condition when 77VDC
minimum input voltage is applied. In Fig. 93, symbol A indicates the 77VDC input
voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 93 analysed, 24.2VDC
output voltage is generated when 77VDC minimum input voltage is applied to the
flyback converter at no-load.

Figure 93. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at Minimum Input Voltage
(77VDC) in No-Load Condition

153
 4.15.2 Nominal input voltage (110VDC) output voltage at no load. Fig. 94
shows the output voltage at no load condition when 110VDC nominal input voltage is
applied. In Fig. 94, symbol A indicates the 110VDC input voltage value and symbol
B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 94 analysed, 24.2VDC output voltage is generated
when 110VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback converter at no-load.

Figure 94. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at Nominal Input Voltage
(110VDC) in No-Load Condition

154
 4.15.3 Maximum input voltage (137.5VDC) output voltage at no load. Fig.
95 shows the output voltage at no load condition when the maximum input voltage of
137.5VDC is applied. In Fig. 95, symbol A indicates the 137.5VDC input voltage
value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 95 analysed, 24.2VDC output
voltage is generated when 137.5VDC nominal input voltage is applied to the flyback
converter at no-load.

Figure 95. Prototype Flyback Converter Output Voltage at Maximum Input Voltage
(137.5VDC) in No-Load Condition

155
 4.15.4 Voltage regulation in no-load condition. Fig. 96 shows the output
voltage variation in the no-load condition when the maximum input voltage range of
77VDC-137.5VDC is applied. In Fig. 96, symbol A indicates the change in input
voltage value and symbol B indicates the output voltage. Fig. 96 is analysed, a constant
24.3VDC output voltage occurs between 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltages in the
flyback converter in the no-load condition.

Figure 96. Output Voltage Regulation of the Prototype Flyback Converter between
77VDC-137.5VDC Input Voltage Range in No-Load Condition

156
4.16 Thermal Measurements

The prototype converter is tested and verified under maximum operating

conditions. The prototype converter is under normal conditions at 137.5VDC
maximum input voltage at 1.5A 100% load, +70°C and -40°C thermal camera
measurements are displayed.

4.16.1 Thermal measurement under normal conditions. Fig. 97 shows the

thermal image of the prototype flyback converter under normal conditions at
137.5VDC maximum input voltage and 1.5A 100% load. Fig. 97 analysed, it is
observed that the ambient temperature is 25.8°C, LT8316 integration 38.1°C,
MOSFET 48.7°C, transformer 52.5°C and output diode 68.2°C.

Figure 97. Prototype Flyback Converter Thermal Measurement at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) under Normal Conditions

157
 4.16.2 Thermal measurement under high temperature conditions. Fig. 98
shows the thermal image of the prototype flyback converter at 137.5VDC maximum
input voltage at 1.5A 100% load at 70C° high temperature conditions. Fig. 98
analysed, it is observed that the ambient temperature is 58°C, LT8316 integration is
67.7°C, MOSFET is 77.7°C, transformer is 76.9°C and output diode is 85.6°C.

Figure 98. Prototype Flyback Converter Thermal Measurement at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) under High Temperature Conditions

158
 4.16.3 Thermal measurement under low temperature conditions. Fig. 99
shows the thermal image of the prototype flyback converter at 137.5VDC maximum
input voltage at 1.5A 100% load at -40C°C° low temperature conditions. Fig. 99 shows
that the ambient temperature is -40C°, LT8316 integration is -18.6°C, MOSFET is -
3.8°C, transformer is 8.7°C and output diode is 29.2°C.

Figure 99. Prototype Flyback Converter Thermal Measurement at 100% Load (1.5A)
at Maximum Input Voltage (137.5VDC) under Low Temperature Conditions

159
4.17 EMC Tests

The prototype flyback circuit was EMC conducted test using

ROHDE&SCHWARZ brand HMS-X model Spectrum Analyser and
ROHDE&SCHWARZ brand V-Network filter. EMC tests were performed at 77VDC
minimum input voltage and 1.5A 100% load in DIM mode. Since the impedance of
the circuit will be at the highest value at 77VDC minimum input voltage, it is the most
decisive issue for the EMC filter and for this reason, tests were performed at 77VDC.
Ambient noise is shown in light blue in the test graphs. The result in dark blue is the
circuit noise.

Fig. 100 shows the conducted test result without EMC filter at 100% load at
77VDC minimum input voltage. In the test between 150kHz-30MHz, noise signals of
102 dBμV at 250kHz, 92.45 dBµV at 550kHz, 52.39 dBµV at 21.75MHz were
observed. The device does not comply with TS EN 50121-3-2 standard because the
signals exceed 93 dBμV and 99 dBμV peak values.

Figure 100. Prototype Flyback Circuit without EMC Filter

160
 Fig. 101 shows the EMC filtered conducted test result at 100% load at 77VDC
minimum input voltage. In the EMC test between 150kHz-30MHz, 52.16 dBμV at
550kHz, 48.77 dBμV at 13.05MHz, 48.26 dBμV at 24.95MHz, 48.26 dBμV at
24.95MHz and 48.88 dBμV at 22.15MHz peak noise signals are observed. Flyback
converter complies with TS EN 50121-3-2 standard when EMC filter is added.

Figure 101. Prototype Flyback Circuit with EMC Filter

161
 Fig. 102 shows the EMC filtered conducted test result at 100% load in DIM
mode. In the EMC test between 150kHz-30MHz, noise signals with peak values of
50.84 dBμV at 550kHz, 52.88 dBμV at 13.05MHz, 50.03 dBμV at 22.05MHz, 50.03
dBμV at 24.75 MHz 50.80 dBμV are observed. When EMC filter is added to the
flyback converter, it complies with TS EN 50121-3-2 standard when operating in DIM
mode.

Figure 102. Prototype Flyback Circuit with EMC Filter in DIM Mode

162
4.18 Efficiency

The efficiency analysis of the prototype flyback converter at 100% (1.5A) load is given
in Table 4. Measurements were made with FLUKE brand 115 model multimeter. The
efficiency of the converter is calculated to be approximately 90%.

Table 4

Flyback Converter Efficiency

Efficiency
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓(%)
77VDC 24.59VDC 0.543A 1.5A 88.22
80VDC 24.59VDC 0.521A 1.5A 88.50
90VDC 24.59VDC 0.462A 1.5A 88.71
100VDC 24.59VDC 0.411A 1.5A 89.74
110VDC 24.59VDC 0.380A 1.5A 88.24
120VDC 24.59VDC 0.345A 1.5A 89.09
137.5VDC 24.59VDC 0.299A 1.5A 89.72

163
4.19 Railway Systems Industry Product Comparison

In this section, the features and prices of industrial products that are close to the flyback
converter designed within the scope of the thesis are researched and transferred to
Table 4. The prices of industrial products are taken from Premier Farnell website.

Table 5

Flyback Converter Product Comparison

Manufacturer MeanWell Traco Power This Thesis

Model RSD-30H-24 TEQ40-7215WIR
Input Voltage 40-160VDC 43-160VDC 60-160VDC
Output Voltage 24VDC 24VDC 24VDC
Output Current 1.25A 1.67A 1.5A
Output Power 30W 40W 36W
Efficiency 89% 91% 90%
Output V. Ripple 50mVp-p 150 mVp-pu 21mVp-p
LED Protection against Protection against
indicator for overvoltage, overvoltage
power on Short circuit Short circuit
Options overtemperature overtemperature
Adjustable Dimmable
IP5K1 protection
Standard EN50155/EN EN 50155 EN 50155, EN 55015/EN
45545-2 50121, EN 15016
FARNELL Price 43,59€ 184,87€ 20€

164
4.20 Flyback Converter Circuit Scheme

Figure 103. Flyback Converter Circuit Scheme

165
 Chapter 5

Conclusions and Feature Work

In this thesis, flyback converter design in accordance with Railway standards

is aimed and applied to practice. In the first step for the design, flyback topology is
analysed and system parameters are determined. According to the system parameters,
flyback converter calculations are made, switching element is determined and
transformer design is made. RC snubber circuit is designed and implemented to reduce
the switching losses of the flyback converter, increase the efficiency and operate in the
safe region. EMC filter circuit has been designed and applied to the circuit to comply
with railway standards. Considering the analyses and calculations, the flyback
converter circuit was simulated with LTspice programme. The simulated converter
was transferred to practice with PCB and tested in the laboratory environment. An
additional feature DIM mode has been added to the converter and an alternative is
offered to the user, when the led strip is connected, the user will be able to determine
the light brightness by providing soft transition, and the converter has been made
suitable for use in the industry with the aim of increasing the demand for the converter.

As a result of the tests, an output voltage of 24.4VDC was observed at 100%

(1.5A) and 20% (300mA) load within the parameters specified for the converter on the
oscilloscope, in other words, in the 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltage range. It is
observed that the output ripple voltage is less than 100mV at 100% and 20% load in
the 77VDC-137.5VDC input voltage range. MOSFET calculations were performed
𝑜𝑛
and a low-priced MOSFET with low 𝑅𝐷𝑆 resistance was selected for thermal
performance in order to reduce the cost. An RC snubber circuit was designed and
applied to the circuit in order to dampen the voltage spikes that occur during switching.
The RC snubber circuit reduces the switching losses caused by the ringing on the
MOSFET. The converter was tested at high and low temperatures and the device did
not deteriorate. EMC filter was designed and applied to the circuit and made suitable
for electromagnetic compatibility. EN 50155 Railway Applications Electronic Devices
tests and TS EN 50121 Railway Applications Electromagnetic Compatibility tests

166
have been met. Due to the hard switching in the converter, power loss occurs and the
leakage inductances of the transformer also cause power loss. This situation reduces
the power loss, in other words, the efficiency of the converter.

Ouyang & Andersen achieved over 90% efficiency by applying active RCD
clamp on flyback converter using asymmetric half bridge technology. Nagesha et al
achieved a maximum efficiency of 85.14% on flyback converter despite using SiC
MOSFET. Zhao et al achieved 63%-75% efficiency by applying lossless RCD snubber
to the flyback circuit operating in DCM mode. Chandra et al achieved 70% efficiency
by using soft start in flyback converter. The flyback converter designed in this thesis
is more efficient than the converters in the literature by using hard switching and
passive RC snubber, and its cost is lower than the flyback converters in the industry.

The flyback converter designed within the scope of this thesis complies with
railway standards, operates at full power and low power between -40C +70C
temperatures, adjusts the light brightness with the DIM feature, operates between
77VDC-137.5VDC input voltages, gives a maximum output current of 1.5A and
provides 36W output power. In addition, the converter output has short circuit
protection and over temperature protection features. The efficiency of the converter is
approximately 90% as stated in Table 4. In order to increase the efficiency of the
converter, the transformer should be carefully wound and if the shielding on the cables
is applied to the transformer, the leakage inductances will be reduced. Soft switching
instead of hard switching on the flyback converter will reduce power loss and increase
efficiency. In addition, since the converter PCB has two layers, capacitive effects on
the PCB are high. If the PCB is designed with four layers, the capacitive effects caused
by the paths will decrease and the efficiency will increase.

167
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Controller," 2020 First IEEE International Conference on Measurement,
Instrumentation, Control and Automation (ICMICA), 2020, pp. 1-5, doi:
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