Introduction to Plasma Physics

Various Collisions

Edited by Kazuhiro Toyoda

Written by
Prof. Mengu Cho
1
 Collision cross section
area A

s:Molecular
Molecular cross section
density n
x+dx
x Typical value s~10-20m2
electron velocity v

x=0
Number of molecules in the above volume 𝑁! = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑥
Area covered by molecules 𝑁! 𝜎 = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑥𝜎
Probability of collision while moving dx 𝑁! 𝜎
= 𝑛𝜎𝑑𝑥 2
𝐴
 Collision
Electron beam

x
• Assume all the electrons in the beam are moving with the same velocity v
• Once an electron collides with a molecule, it loses the velocity v and drops
from the beam
• The change in the number of beam electrons while moving dx

𝑑𝑁" = −𝑁" 𝑛𝜎𝑑𝑥

Probability that one electron suffers a collision 3

 Collision
Electron beam

x
• Suppose the number of electron at x=0 is No
𝑑𝑁"
= −𝑁" 𝑛𝜎
𝑑𝑥

𝑁" = 𝑁# exp −𝑛𝜎𝑥

4
 Collision cross section
𝑁! = 𝑁" exp −𝑛𝜎𝑥

• s is called collision cross section

• As a typical value, using orbital radius of a
hydrogen atom (Bohr radius) a0=5.29x10-11m

𝜋𝑎"# = 8.79×10$#% m#

We can roughly assume 10-20m2（square of Å）

5
 Mean free path
• Distance to travel between collisions

𝑁" 𝑛𝜎𝑑𝑥
Probability that the free path is between x and x+dx
𝑁#
'
𝑁" 𝑛𝜎𝑑𝑥
Average (expected value ) of free path 𝜆$%& = - 𝑥
𝑁#
' ' #
𝑁" 𝑛𝜎𝑑𝑥 𝑁# exp −𝑛𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1
𝜆$%& = - 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜎 - 𝑥 =
𝑁# 𝑁# 𝑛𝜎
# #
λmfp is called mean free path
1
𝜆$%& =
𝑛𝜎 6
 Mean free path
• The remaining number of electrons in the beam

𝑥
𝑁! = 𝑁" exp −
𝜆&'(
Poisson process

7
 Collision frequency
• When a particle travels the mean free path, it suffers
one collision on average.
• Average time between collisions: Collision time
𝜆$%& 1
𝜏()* = =
𝑣 𝑛𝜎𝑣
Number of collisions per unit time: collision frequency

1 𝑣
𝜈()* = = = 𝑛𝜎𝑣
𝜏()* 𝜆$%&

𝜈 = 𝑛𝜎𝑣 8
 Conservation of momentum
m1 v1’
m1
v1 m2

v2 m2

v2’
before collision after collision

• No external force during the collision (10-16second）

• Total momentum of the particles is conserved
• Kinetic energy of the center of mass velocity is conserved

9
 Conservation of momentum
m1
m1
v1 m2 v1’

v2 m2

v2’
before collision after collision
Momentum conservation 𝑚" 𝑣" + 𝑚# 𝑣# = 𝑚" 𝑣"& + 𝑚# 𝑣#&
1 #
1 #
1 #
1 #
Energy conservation 𝐸! = 𝑚" 𝑣" + 𝑚# 𝑣# = 𝑚" + 𝑚# 𝑣$ + 𝜇𝑣%
2 2 2 2
𝑚" 𝑣" + 𝑚# 𝑣# Invariant Variant
Center of mass velocity 𝑣$ =
𝑚" + 𝑚# does not change due to collision
Relative velocity 𝑣% = 𝑣" − 𝑣#
If there is anything that changes,
𝑚" 𝑚# it is only relative velocity vr.
Reduced mass 𝜇=
𝑚" + 𝑚# 10
 Elastic or Inelastic
Energy before collision Energy after collision

1 " 1 #"
𝜇𝑣! = 𝜇𝑣! + ∆𝐸 Center of mass frame
2 2
∆𝐸 = 0 Elastic collision
∆𝐸 > 0 Inelastic collision
(Kinetic energy becomes internal energy)

∆𝐸 < 0 Inelastic collision

(Internal energy becomes kinetic energy)11
 Differential cross section
Solid angle to this area

B j
A
q

Center of mass frame

• Collision cross section Q
• Probability that a particle is scattered into the solid
angle dW 𝜎+ 𝜃, 𝜑 𝑑Ω
𝑄
𝜎+ 𝜃, 𝜑 Differential cross section 12
 Momentum transfer cross section
B j
A
q

# $#
Total collision cross section 𝑄 = # 𝜎! 𝜃, 𝜑 𝑑Ω = # # 𝜎! 𝜃, 𝜑 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
" "

Momentum transfer cross section 𝑄% = # 1 − cos 𝜃 𝜎! 𝜃, 𝜑 𝑑Ω

Momentum change ∆𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝑝 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝 1 − cos 𝜃

∆𝑝
Fraction of momentum loss = 1 − cos 𝜃
𝑝
1
Distance particles lose momentum 𝑛& 𝑄%
13
Particle A give the momentum to the particle B
 Energy transfer via elastic collision
m2 m2
m1 m1 v1’
v1
v2’

before collision after collision

Momentum: 𝑚" 𝑣" = 𝑚" 𝑣"& + 𝑚# 𝑣#&

1 1 &#
1 #
Energy: 𝐸 = 𝑚" 𝑣" = 𝑚" 𝑣" + 𝑚# 𝑣#&
#
2 2 2
𝑚# &
𝑣"& = 𝑣# − 𝑣"
𝑚"

2𝑚"
𝑣#& = 𝑣"
𝑚" + 𝑚#
14
Energy transfer via elastic collision
m2 m2
m1 m1 v1’
v1
v2’

before collision after collision

1 &#
4𝑚" 𝑚# 1 #
Energy change of m2 ∆𝐸 = 𝑚# 𝑣# = 𝑚 𝑣
#2 " "
2 𝑚" + 𝑚#

∆𝐸 4𝑚" 𝑚#
Fraction of energy change = #
𝐸 𝑚" + 𝑚#
∆𝐸 𝑚-
For 𝑚, ≫ 𝑚- , 𝐸 ≈ 𝑚
,
When the mass difference is big, only tiny energy is transferred
between m1 and m2 15
 Time to reach equilibrium
• Just after plasma is produced, usually electrons have higher
temperature (average energy per particle) than heavy particles
(atom, molecule, ion)
• Equilibrium
– Electrons and heavy ions have the same temperature
• Average energy of translational motion =(3/2)kT
– Each particle has the same kinetic energy
• Only a small amount of energy is given by an electron (m1) to a
heavy particle (m2) after one collision
• Until electrons collides with heavy particles m2/m1 times, the
two temperature does not become equal (m2/m1 > 1000)

Time to reach equilibrium：

1 𝐸 𝑚, 1 𝑚,
𝜏". ≈ = =
𝜈()* ∆𝐸 𝑚- 𝜈()* 𝑚- 𝑛/ 𝑄𝑣" 16
 Excitation collision
• Excite internal energy of a heavy particle
– Rotation, vibration (molecules only, not exist for atoms)

rotational axis

– Electronic
vibration rotation

N e

17
 Energy state

Bohr’s hydrogen atom model

laserion.elcom.nitech.ac.jp/ ~erbium/members/eryu/kougi/semi/semicon3.do
Energy state of a hydrogen atom
http://www2.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld/Part4/P43/Bohr_theory.htm

• Energy states of hydrogen have discrete values

𝐸" 𝑚( 𝑒 )
𝐸' = − # 𝐸" = #
= 13.6 eV
𝑛 8𝜀 * ℎ 18
 Energy state
• Transition from lower to upper state
• Excitation (collision, photon
absorption)

• Transition from upper to lower state

• Emission of light
• hν=Eu-El

http://www2.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld/Part4/P43/Bohr_theory.htm

19
 Excitation collision
• Electronic excitation in electron-molecule collision

Potential energy (eV)

Distance between nuclei(Å)

20
Fig. Potential of diatomic molecule (N2)
 Excitation collision
• Franck-Condon principle
– When an electron is excited to an upper state, distance between nuclei do
not change
– Electron is excited vertically in the potential plot

Potential energy (eV)

Distance between nuclei(Å) 21

Dissociation collision
e + H2 -> e + H + H

Electron is excited to upper state

Two nuclei moves along the
dissociation curveく

Molecules need to receive 8.8eV, first.

8.8-4.5=4.3 eV becomes surplus. This
Is given to free H atoms

from 高村
22
example of H2 molecule
Ionization collision

Excitation to free state

energy (eV)

23
Energy states of Argon atom from 真壁
Ionization potential

first second third fourth 24

from 高村
Ionization cross section

Electron energy (eV) Electron energy (eV)

Peak is approximately 10-20m2 at 50~100eV
No resonance for too high energy (electron is too fast) 25
 Energy loss at inelastic collision
m1
m1
v1
Assume at rest m2

v2’
before collision after collision

1 1 1
Energy conservation m1v12 = m1v1′ 2 + m2 v2′ 2 + ΔE
2 2 2
! !' !'
m v
Momentum conservation 1 1 = m v
1 1 + m v
2 2

! m ! ! substitute
v2' = 1 ( v1 − v1' )
m2 26
 Energy loss at inelastic collision
1 1 1
Energy conservation m1v1 = m1v1′ + m2 v2′ 2 + ΔE
2 2

2 2 2
! !' !'
m v
Momentum conservation 1 1 = m v
1 1 + m v
2 2

! m ! ! substitute
v2' = 1 ( v1 − v1' )
m2

2
1 1 1 ⎛ m1 ⎞
ΔE = m1v1 − m1v1′ − m2 ⎜ ⎟ ( v1 − v1′ )
2 2 2

2 2 2 ⎝ m2 ⎠
m1
Differenciate w/r/t v’1 and obtain the peak value of DE v1, = v1
m1 + m2

⎛ m2 ⎞ 1
ΔEmax =⎜ m v 2

⎝ m1 + m2 ⎟⎠ 2
1 1

27
Initial energy
 Energy loss at inelastic collision
⎛ m2 ⎞ 1
ΔEmax =⎜ m v 2

⎝ m1 + m2 ⎟⎠ 2
1 1

Initial energy

When m2>>m1, most of initial energy can be given as internal energy

It is difficult for electrons to give their energy to heavy particles via

elastic collision. But it is very easy via inelastic collision.

28
 Attachment
For O2 molecule

O + O- Dissociative
attachment
e+O2 [O2-]*
(+M) O2- Three-body
metastable
the third body attachment
(takes energy)
e+O2 O2*+e O++O-+e Production of ion pair

Metastable: Difficult to make transition to lower state by emitting light.

Electrons stay long time (<10s) 29
 Attachment

Fig. O2 dissociative attachment

Fig. O2 potential energy cross section
30
From 真壁
 Electron affinity
• Depth of potential when an electron is attached
• To release an electron from the attached state, we need
to give this energy
• The larger the electron affinity is, the more likely to
become a negative ion

atom Electron affinity (eV) molecule Electron affinity (eV)

F 3.56 F2 3.08
Cl 3.72 Cl2 2.38
Br 3.81 Br2 2.51
I 3.23 I2 2.58
O 1.46 O2

from 真壁 31
 Electron affinity and ionization energy

Electron affinity
large

small
Ionization energy

http://www.geocities.jp/amy_chemistry/chemistry19.html 32
 Electron affinity and ionization energy

Attachment cross
section Ionization cross section

Ionization and attachment cross section of SF6 gas

• SF6 gas has very large attachment cross section
• Even if electrons are produced, they attach SF6 instead of ionizing
• Discharge does not proceed
33
– Used for electrical insulation
 Ion - neutral collision

A+ + B -> A+ + B Elastic collision

Efficient transfer of momentum and
energy mA≈mB

A+ + B -> A + B+ Charge exchange collision

Very large cross section between like particles

Can produce high velocity neutrals

fast ion fast neutral
Ar+ + Ar -> Ar + Ar+
slow neutral 34
slow ion
 Ion - neutral collision

電荷交換

弾性

Collision cross section between Ar+ and Ar

Larger than electron-neutral collision cross section by one order of magnitude

35
 Coulomb collision
(collision between charged particle)
Electron

Scattering angle
Positive ion
(regarded at rest）

e2
Coulomb force at distance r0 F=
4πε o r02
r0
Time to spend near an ion T≈
v 36
 Coulomb collision
Momentum change = Force x time

If an electron is deflected by 90o

e2 Setting equal
mv ≈
4πε o r0 v
Changing to

37
 クーロン衝突

4
Collision cross σ = π r 2 = e
16πε o2 m 2 v 4
ei 0
section

ne4
Collision frequency ν ei = nσ v =
16πε o2 m 2 v 3

Assuming Maxwellian distribution, electron velocity is approximated by

κ Te
v≈
me

38
 Coulomb collision

We considered only large-angle collision of

90o deflection. In reality, there are many
small angle collisions

Coulomb logarithm
Approximately 10
39
Coulomb collision

n:plasma density
λD:debye length
lnL is usually 10

From Chen 40
 Coulomb collision
electron Can’t feel the presence of ion
No scattering

electron
Small angle scattering

ld
electron

ion

Large angle scattering

41
Electron-ion recombination

Three-body
recombination

light Radiation
recombination
electron (-) proton (+) neutron 42
 Rate equation

Density of electron, ion and neutral gas is uniform, but they

change in time (unsteady)

Investigate temporal profile of electron, ion and neutral gas

density
• Uniform： Same value at different places
• Constant: Same value at different times 43
Collisional ionization and recombination

collide
Ionization collision
fast
electron

Three-body
recombination
electron (-) proton (+) neutron 44
 Photo-ionization and recombination

Photoionizaiton
light

light Radiation recombination

electron (-) proton (+) neutron

45
 Rate equation
electron ion neutral
Ionization A+e→A++e+e ↗ ↗ ↘
collision
Photo ionization A+hν→A++e ↗ ↗ ↘
Radiation A++e→A+hν ↘ ↘ ↗
recombination
Three-body A++e+e→A+e ↘ ↘ ↗
recombination

• Neutral: atom and molecule

• Increase of electron and ion is equal to the decrease of neutrals
and vice versa
46
 Rate equation

⎧ dne
⎪ dt = Se − L e
Electron density
⎪ +
⎪ dn i + +
⎨ = S i − L i
Positive ion density
⎪ dt
⎪ dnn
⎪ dt = S n − L n Neutral density
⎩

S: Number of increasing reaction per unit time and unit volume

L: Number of decreasing reaction per unit time and unit volume
47
 Rate equation (Increase of electron）
• Electrons increase via ionization
– Number of ionization collisions via one electron per unit
time
ν ion = nn < σ ion ve >
Electron speed
Density of neutral targets Ionization collision cross section
An electron moves the volume of σionve per unit time. The number of
target particles in the volume∞determines the number of ionization
collisions
< σ ion ve >= ∫ σ ion (v)vg(v)dv
0
⎛ ⎞
3/2
g(v) is speed distribution function g(v)dv = 4π ⎛⎜ m ⎞⎟
2
mv
v exp ⎜ −
2
⎟ dv
⎝ 2πκ T ⎠ ⎝ 2κ48T⎠
When Maxwellian
Rate equation (Increase of electron）
∞

< σ ion ve >= ∫ σ ion (v)vg(v)dv

0

σion differs depending on electron speed (energy)

Electrons have various energy. We need to

take an average.
<σionve> is called velocity coefficient of ionization
Number of ionization collisions per unit volume and unit time
Electron density
Sec = neν ion = nenn < σ ion ve > (1) 49
Rate equation (Increase of electron）
• Total number of electrons born per unit volume and
unit time via photoionization
Se p = a p nn (2)

Density of neutral particles

Photoionization coefficient
ap:Probability that a neutral particle gets ionized by receiving
photon per unit time (1/s)

Proportional to light (shorter wavelength than UV) intensity

50
Rate equation (Increase of electron）
• Total increasing number of electrons inside a volume V during time dt

dN e = d ( neV ) = dneV
• Sum of total number of ionization collisions and photoionization
insidee a volume V

(Sec )
+ Se p Vdt
• Both are equal

(
dneV = Sec + Se p Vdt)
dne
= Sec + Se p (3)
51
dt
 Rate equation (Increase of electron）
• Electrons decrease via recombination
– Number of recombinations per electron by meeting ions
ν recomb = ni+ < σ r r ve >
Density of target Electron speed
positive ions Collision cross section of
radiation recombination
•Total number of radiation recombination per unit volume and
unit time Ler = neν rr = neni < σ rr ve > (4)
+

Can be replaced by ne（Plasma in quasi-neutral)

52 n +
If we consider negative ions or want to do rigorously, we should use i
 Rate equation (Increase of electron）
• Total number of three-body recombination per unit time and unit
volume
Le3 = α ei n ni
2 +
e
(5)

Probability that an electron and an ion meet

∝(Number of electron）×（Number of ions）
∝neni

Probability that two electrons and an ion meet

∝(Number of electron）2×（Number of ions）
∝ne2ni
αei is recombination coefficient（unit is m6s-1) 53
Rate equation (Increase of electron）
• Total decreasing number of electrons in a volume V per time dt

dN e = d ( neV ) = dneV
• Sum of radiation recombination and three-body recombination in a
volume V
( Ler + Le3 )Vdt
• Both are equal

dneV = − ( Ler + Le3 )Vdt

dne
= − ( Ler + Le3 ) (6)
dt 54
 Rate equation
• Consider both increase and decrease
• From Eqs. 3 and 6
dne
= Sec + Sep − ( Ler + Le3 )
dt
From Eqs. （1),(2),(4),(5)

dne
= nenn < σ ion ve > +a p nn − neni+ < σ rr ve > −α ei n e2 ni+
dt
Ionization Photo Radiation Three-body
ionization recombination recombination
55
 Rate equation
• Considering the other species
⎧ dne
⎪ dt = ne nn < σ ion ve > +a p nn − ne ni
+
< σ rr ve > −α ei n 2 +
e
n i
⎪ +
⎪ dni
⎨ = n n
e n < σ v
ion e > +a n
p n − n n
e i
+
< σ v
rr e > − α 2 +
ei e ni
n
⎪ dt
⎪ dnn
⎪ dt = −nenn < σ ion ve > −a p nn + neni < σ rr ve > +α ei n e ni
+ 2 +

⎩
Ionization Photo Radiation Three-body
ionization recombination recombination
56
 Rate equation (Simplified form)
• No negative ions and only one species of positive ions
ne=ni+
⎧ dne
⎪⎪ dt = n n
e n < σ v
ion e > +a n
p n − ne
2
< σ v
rr e > −α n
ei e
3

⎨
⎪ dnn = −nenn < σ ion ve > −a p nn + ne 2 < σ rr ve > +α ei n 3
⎪⎩ dt e

When we solve this differential equations, with the initial condition of

ne and nn, we can obtain the densities of electron and neutrals at given
time.
Usually solve numerically （Runge-Kutta etc) 57
Weakly ionized plasma and strongly ionized plasma
Energy loss (light, heat）

Neutral Neutral
Neutral Ionization > Ionization=
No ionization recombination Recombination

Energy injection Energy injection

t=0 t=∞
At some time, the input and output of the energy becomes equilibrium and
ionization and recombination becomes equilibrium and the steady state
appears 58
Weakly ionized plasma and strongly ionized plasma

• Strongly ionized plasma

– Plasma density is comparable to or higher than neutral gas
density
• Arc discharge
• Space beyond several thousand km altitude
• Nuclear fusion
• Weakly ionized plasma
– Plasma density is much lower than neutral gas density
• Fluorescent bulb
• Ionosphere（Less than several thousand km altitude)
– Temperatures of different species may be different
• Electron temperature > Ion temperature ≈ Neutral temperature
– Electrons usually collide with neutral gas particles 59
 Mobility in weakly ionized plasma
External field E
collision

Dt

Electron trajectory in weakly ionized plasma with external E field

• When an external field is applied to weakly ionized plasma, electrons move to
the opposite direction while they collide with the neutral particles
• Assuming that an electron loses all of the velocity once it collides, the velocity
when it collides is
eE
v= Δt 60
me
 Mobility in weakly ionized plasma
External field E
Collision

Dt

eE
v= Δt
me
Time between collisions is the inverse of the collision frequency

eE Electron drift velocity

vd =
meν c
61
 Mobility in weakly ionized plasma
eE
vd =
meν c
e
µe = Electron mobility
meν c
vd = µe E
• Collision frequency is proportional to gas density nn

e e e E
vd = E= E=
meν c menn σ ve me σ ve nn
62
 Mobility in weakly ionized plasma
e e e E
vd = E= E= (7)
meν c menn σ ve me σ ve nn

Doesn’t change much for different E/nn

• Electron drift velocity is proportional to E/nn

E Reduced field （unit in Vm2)

nn Reduced Electric Field
Used often in discharge application of weakly ionized plasma

10-21Vm2 is often called 1 Townsend (Td) 1Td=10-21Vm2 63

Mobility in weakly ionized plasma

64
 Energy equilibrium
Energy that an electron obtains from E field between collisions

Energy gained per unit time ＝ velocity x force

vd × F = vd eE = eµe E 2
Energy lost from an electron after one collision
3 Both are equal in equilibrium
κ kTe
2 2me
κ is loss coefficient. For elastic collision, it is κ =
M
3
Energy lost per unit time κ kTeν c
2 65
 Energy equilibrium
3
From eµe E = κ kTeν c
2
(8)
2

kTe 1 π 1 E
= (9)
e 2 3 κ σ nn

66