Course code: 24PH102T

Course name: Engineering Physics

UNIT-4: Thermal physics

 UNIT-4

THERMAL PHYSICS

Thermodynamic systems (closed and open), Thermodynamic properties and

equilibrium, Concepts of heat and work, Laws of thermodynamics, Carnot cycle, Heat
transfer-thermal expansion of solids and liquids, Conduction in solids, Thermal
conductivity, Forbe’s method, Lees’ disc method, Thermal insulation and its
applications, Thermal Convection and its applications, Newton’s law of cooling,
Thermal Radiation – emission and absorption radiation, emissive power, Black body
radiation, Stefan’s laws, Wien’s law.

Çengel: Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat

Transfer, Second Edition

University Physics with modern physics 13th edition

THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
Thermodynamics can be defined as the study of energy, energy
transformations and its relation to matter. The analysis of thermal
systems is achieved through the application of the governing
conservation equations, namely Conservation of Mass,
Conservation of Energy (1st law of thermodynamics), the 2nd law
of thermodynamics and the property relations. Energy can be
viewed as the ability to cause changes.

• Thermodynamics: The science of energy.

• Energy: The ability to cause changes.

• thermodynamics stems from therme

(heat) and dynamis (power).
 LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS

• First Law
• Second Law
• Zeroth Law
• Third Law
 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

• Conservation of energy principle:

During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another (transform) but
the total amount of energy remains
constant.
✓ Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
✓ The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.

Energy cannot be created

or destroyed; it can only
change forms (the first law).
 Conservation of energy

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Example is a chain of energy transfer that starts with the
microwave oven.
 Conservation of energy

1 ELECTRICAL energy is converted to THERMAL energy

2 HEAT is TRANSFERRED to the food we are cooking

3 After cooking, we take out the food out of the oven and expose it to the
environment and, thus, HEAT from the food is transferred
to the environment

4 We get hungry. We eat the food and the CHEMICAL energy in the food is
converted to KINETIC energy as we do our daily activities.

5 The energy transfer goes on…

…Continue the chain

• The second law of thermodynamics:
✓ It asserts that energy has quantity as well as
quality.
✓ Actual processes occur in the direction of
decreasing quality of energy.
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature.

• Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the study of

thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles. - EASY
• Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of individual particles. – NOT EASY!
In the terms of entropy

The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated
system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases.

More simply put: the entropy of the world only increases and never
decreases.

The second law of thermodynamics is a statement about which processes

occur and which do not. There are many ways to state the second law; here
is one: Heat can flow spontaneously from a hot object to a cold object; it will
not flow spontaneously from a cold object to a hot object.

Definition of the change in entropy S when an amount of heat Q is added:

∆𝑆 = 𝑄/𝑇

Another statement of the second law of thermodynamics: The total entropy

of an isolated system never decreases.
 THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal

equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature, even if they are not in contact.

24
Three systems, A, B, and C, that initially are not in thermal equilibrium (Fig. 17.2). We
surround them with an ideal insulating box so that they cannot interact with anything
except each other. We separate systems A and B with an ideal insulating wall (the
green slab in Fig. 17.2a), but we let system C interact with both systems A and B. This
interaction is shown in the figure by a yellow slab representing a thermal conductor, a
material that permits thermal interactions through it. We wait until thermal equilibrium is
attained; then A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with C.

we separate system C from systems A and B with an ideal insulating wall (Fig. 17.2b),
and then we replace the insulating wall between A and B with a conducting wall that
lets A and B interact.
If C is initially in thermal equilibrium with both A and B, then A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This result is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
 THE THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The molecules of a substance in solid phase continually oscillate, creating
an uncertainty about their position. These oscillations, however, fade as
the temperature is decreased, and the molecules supposedly become
motionless at absolute zero. This represents a state of ultimate molecular
order (and minimum energy). Therefore, the entropy of a pure crystalline
substance at absolute zero temperature is zero since there is no
uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that instant (Fig.). This
statement is known as the third law of thermodynamics.
THIRD LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

Is it possible?
It is impossible to reduce any system to absolute zero in a
finite series of operations

Four laws of Thermodynamics

- Law of Conservation of Energy
- Entropy
- Equilibrium
- Absolute Zero
 1-2 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
• Primary or fundamental dimensions
Basic dimensions, such as
mass m,
length L,
time t,
temperature T
• secondary or derived dimensions
such as
velocity V,
energy E,
volume V
are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
15
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The region outside the system
• Boundary (------): The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
✓ fixed or
✓ movable.
• Systems may be considered to be
✓ closed or
piston-cylinder device
✓ open.

Closed System (control mass):

✓ Fixed amount of mass
✓ No mass can cross its boundary
✓ No mass + No energy = isolated
system. 15
 Open System (control volume):
✓ Encloses a device that involves mass flow
o such as compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
✓ Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
✓ Control surface (-----): The boundaries of a control volume. It can be
real or imaginary.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a system, such as
✓ pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m, etc.
✓ Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.

✓ Intensive properties: Values independent of the

mass of a system,
o temperature, pressure, and density, etc

✓ Extensive properties: Values depend on the size

or extent of the system.
o mass and volume

✓ Specific properties: Extensive properties per unit

mass.

18
 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density

Specific volume

Specific weight: The weight of a unit volume

of a substance.

Specific gravity (SG): The ratio of the density of a

substance to the density of water at 4°C.
 1-6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• State: Condition of a system
✓ Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.

• Equilibrium: A state of balance with no unbalanced

potentials (or driving forces) within the system.

✓ Thermal equilibrium: temperature is the same throughout

the entire system.

✓ Mechanical equilibrium: no change in pressure at any

point of the system with time.

✓ Phase equilibrium: If a system involves multiple phases

and when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.

✓ Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition of a system

does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions A closed system reaching
occur. thermal equilibrium.

20
The State Postulate
• The state of a simple compressible system is completely
specified by two independent, intensive properties.
✓ Simple compressible system: If a system involves no electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects.

21
 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
• A process : initial state, final states, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.

Process Diagram

Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process:

A process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times.
22
• Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature T,
pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume v).

• Prefix iso- designates a process for

which a particular property remains
constant
✓ Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains constant.
✓ Isobaric process: … pressure P….
✓ Isochoric (or isometric) process: …
specific volume v….

• Cycle: A process during which the

initial and final states are identical.

The P-V diagram of a compression

process.
23
NEXT LECTURE
 The Steady-Flow Process
•

with position but not with time.

steady implies no change with time.

control volume may change

fluid properties within the
• Steady-flow process: A process during
which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.

• A large number of engineering devices

operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified
as steady-flow devices.
✓ turbines,
✓ pumps,
✓ boilers,
✓ condensers, and
✓ heat exchangers
✓ power plants
✓ refrigeration systems.

mass and energy contents of a

control volume remain constant.
23
 Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states
such as the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the
steam point.
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air
saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
✓ Kelvin scale (SI)
✓ Rankine scale (E)

A constant-volume gas thermometer would read

-273.15°C, or 0 K, at absolute zero pressure.
25
Rankine scale
1-9 PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

27
Some basic pressure gages.
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure (relative to absolute
vacuum)

• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and

the local atmospheric pressure.
✓ Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and so they indicate gage pressure.

• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

29
 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• standard atmosphere: Pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm (= h)
in height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration
(g = 9.807 m/s2).

Barometer
31
The First Law of Thermodynamics: Closed Systems

The first law of thermodynamics can be simply stated as follows: during

an interaction between a system and its surroundings, the amount of
energy gained by the system must be exactly equal to the amount of
energy lost by the surroundings. A closed system can exchange energy
with its surroundings through heat and work transfer.

Resulting in a change of internal energy of the system. Internal energy

change can be considered as a measure of molecular activity associated
with change of phase or temperature of the system and the energy
equation is represented as follows:
nergyEquation1
The First Law of Thermodynamics: Open Systems
A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
That is, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the control
volume, but at any point, they remain constant during the entire process.
(Remember, steady means no change with time.)

During a steady-flow process, no intensive or extensive properties within

the control volume change with time.

Also, the heat and work interactions between a steady-flow system and its
surroundings do not change with time. Thus, the power delivered by a
system and the rate of heat transfer to or from a system remain constant
during a steady-flow process.
The mass balance for a general steady-flow system
 The amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms (by heat, work, and
mass) must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it. Then the rate form of the
general energy balance reduces for a steady-flow process to

h = enthalpy
ke= Kinetic energy
pe = Potentila energy
For example, an ordinary electric hot-water heater under steady operation, as shown in
Fig. 6–20.

In such cases, it is common practice to assume heat to be transferred into the system
(heat input) at a rate of Q ., and work produced by the system (work output) at a rate of
W . , and then solve the problem. The first-law or energy balance relation in that case
for a general steady-flow system becomes
 rate of heat transfer between the control volume and its surroundings

power. For steady-flow devices, the control volume is constant

The enthalpy change of a fluid

Çengel: Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat

Transfer, Second Edition Pages 215 to 217
 The Carnot cycle, first proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot.
The theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the
Carnot heat engine. The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible
processes—two isothermal and two adiabatic—and it can be executed
either in a closed or a steady-flow system.

Consider a closed system that consists of a gas contained in an adiabatic

piston–cylinder device, as shown in Fig. The insulation of the cylinder head
is such that it may be removed to bring the cylinder into contact with
reservoirs to provide heat transfer.
we see that the area under curve 1-2-
3 is the work done by the gas
during the expansion part of the
cycle, and the area under curve 3-4-1
is the work done on the gas during
the compression part of the cycle.
The area enclosed by the path of the
cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the difference
between these two and represents the net
work done during the cycle.

P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH
constant). Initially (state 1), the temperature of the gas is
TH and the cylinder head is in close contact with a source
at temperature TH. The gas is allowed to expand slowly,
doing work on the surroundings. As the gas expands, the
temperature of the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as
the temperature drops by an infinitesimal amount dT,
some heat is transferred from the reservoir into the gas,
raising the gas temperature to TH. Thus, the gas
temperature is kept constant at TH.

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3,

temperature drops from TH to TL). At state 2, the
reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder head is
removed and replaced by insulation so that the system
becomes adiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly,
doing work on the surroundings until its temperature
drops from TH to TL (state 3). The piston is assumed to
be frictionless and the process to be quasi equilibrium,
so the process is reversible as well as adiabatic.
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-
4, TL constant). At state 3, the insulation at the
cylinder head is removed, and the cylinder is
brought into contact with a sink at temperature TL.
Now the piston is pushed inward by an external
force, doing work on the gas. As the gas is
compressed, its temperature tends to rise. But as
soon as it rises by an infinitesimal amount dT, heat
is transferred from the gas to the sink, causing the
gas temperature to drop to TL. Thus, the gas
temperature remains constant at TL.

Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1,

temperature rises from TL to TH). State 4 is such that
when the low-temperature reservoir is removed, the
insulation is put back on the cylinder head, and the
gas is compressed in a reversible manner, the gas
returns to its initial state (state 1). The temperature
rises from TL to TH during this reversible adiabatic
compression process, which completes the cycle.
 The hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle is
called the Carnot heat engine.
The thermal efficiency of any heat engine,

where QH is heat transferred to the heat engine from a high-

temperature reservoir at TH, and QL is heat rejected to a low-
temperature reservoir at TL
For
reversible
heat engines

This relation is often referred to as the Carnot efficiency,

since the Carnot heat engine is the best known reversible
engine. This is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating
between the two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures TL
and TH can have (Fig. 7–46). All irreversible (i.e., actual) heat
engines operating between these temperature limits (TL and
TH) have lower efficiencies. An actual heat engine cannot
reach this maximum theoretical efficiency value because it is
impossible to completely eliminate all the irreversibilities
associated with the actual cycle.
The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines operating
between the same temperature limits compare as follows

No heat engine can have a higher

efficiency than a reversible heat engine
operating between the same high- and
low-temperature reservoirs.
Thermal expansion
Most materials expand when their temperatures increase.

Rising temperatures make the liquid expand in a liquid-in-tube

thermometer (Fig. a) and bend bimetallic strips (Fig. b). The decks of
bridges need special joints and sup- ports to allow for expansion.

These are all examples of thermal expansion.

1. Linear Expansion

Suppose a rod of material has a length L0 at some initial temperature T0.

When the temperature changes by ∆T, the length changes by ∆L.

Experiments show that if ∆T is not too large (say, less than 100 C° or so),
∆L is directly proportional to ∆T (Fig. a). If two rods made of the same
material have the same temperature change, but one is twice as long as
the other, then the change in its length is also twice as great. (Fig. b).
we may express these relationships in an equation:
2. Volume expansion

Increasing temperature usually causes increases in volume for both solid

and liquid materials. Just as with linear expansion, experiments show that
if the temperature change ∆T is not too great (less than 100 C° or so), the
increase in volume ∆V is approximately proportional to both the
temperature change ∆T and the initial volume V0:
For solid materials there is a simple relationship between the volume expan-
sion coefficient 𝜷 and the linear expansion coefficient 𝛼. To derive this
relationship, we consider a cube of material with side length L and volume V
= L3. At the initial temperature the values are L0 and V0. When the
temperature increases by dT, the side length increases by dL and the volume
increases by an amount dV given by
Heat transfer

A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a

system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another. The
science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers
is the heat transfer.

Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and

radiation.

All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference,

and all modes are from the high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature
one.
Conduction in solids

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a

substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions
between the particles.

Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example, eventually warms up to

the room temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the drink
through the aluminum can by conduction.
Conduction in solids

In gases and liquids, conduction is

due to the collisions and diffusion
of the molecules during their
random motion.

In solids, it is due to the

combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.
Thermal conductivity
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of
the medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the
temperature difference across the medium.

We know that wrapping a hot water tank with glass wool (an insulating
material) reduces the rate of heat loss from the tank. The thicker the
insulation, the smaller the heat loss.
where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat
In the limiting case of x → 0, the equation above reduces to the
differential form

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction after J. Fourier, who

expressed it first in his heat transfer text in 1822

The relation above indicates that the rate of heat conduction in a given
direction is proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction.

Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the

temperature gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in above Eq. ensures that heat transfer in
the positive x direction is a positive quantity.
The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.

The range of thermal

conductivity of various
materials at room
temperature.
Lee’s Disk
Applications
 Insulating Material
All those material that retard or stop the flow of
• Heat
• Electricity
• Sound
through them may be broadly defined as insulating materials.
The same material may not be insulator against all the three types of
energy waves; it may not be insulator against heat or electricity or
sound or more than one of the two transmissions.
• The importance of Insulating material cannot be over
emphasized in engineering practice. Since heat and electricity
are the main source of energy in many important operations, a
safe handling of these source may be impossible without
insulators. The insulator may be studied under three general
headings, thermal insulators, electrical insulators and sound
insulators.
 Thermal Insulator
• The main function of thermal insulator is to act as a
partial or total barrier in the passage of heat. A
thermal insulator, therefore, should posses following
properties;
• It should have very low thermal conductivity;
• It should have a very high softening point.
• It should be stable to thermal shocks, i.e. should not
break on repeated heating and cooling.
• It should be stable chemically and physically at high
temperature for prolonged period at stretch.
• It should be resistant to moisture and vibration and
have good strength too.
 Thermal Insulator
• The situation where a thermal insulator may
be required are varied.
• The flow of Heat has to be stopped from a
working place to the outside environment, such
as furnace to outside;
• The flow of heat has to be stopped from an
outside source to a place, for instance in special
rooms where equipment is to be worked at low
temperature or comfort has to be insured in a
hot climate from inside living.
Thermal Insulator
 Types of Heat Insulators
• Following are some common heat Insulating materials
used in engineering Industries;
Magnesium Plastic
• This consist of thoroughly blended mixture of
hydrated magnesium carbonate and asbestos. It is
applied as a plastic mass cover over the surface from
which the escape of Heat is to be controlled.
Aluminum foils.
• These are essentially thin sheets made from
aluminum and its alloys. When wrapped over steam
pipes and other appliance, it serves as a good
insulating material.
Magnesium
Plastic
Aluminum Foils
 Types of Heat Insulators
Asbestos
• It is one of the best heat insulating material for
big and small applications alike. Insulating
sheets made from asbestos mixing some clay in
the presence of a suitable binder are used for
insulating boilers and also for bulk head lining
in ships.
Cork
• It is light weight external tissue or bark of the
oak tree. It has been found to be good heat
insulator and is used much for the same purpose.
Asbestos
Cork
 Types of Heat Insulators

Cellular Rubber
• It is special variety of rubber made extra porous
during manufacture. This rubber is used as an
insulator in cold storage.
Mineral Wool
• It is also called rock wool . This material is obtained
commercially from impure limestone. The rock is
first heated to melting temperature, Jet of air or water
is made to fall on streams of this molten rock which
solidifies into wool like structure. Clay and dolomite
are also used for making mineral wool.
Cellular Rubber
Mineral
Wool
 Vermiculite
Vermiculite
These are group of mica like foliated minerals,
some variety of vermiculites are processed
for manufacturing of heat insulators that are
specially useful for furnace insulations
Vermiculite
Thermal Convection

Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the
greater the convection heat transfer.

In convection, thermal energy is carried by the large-scale flow of matter. It

can be divided into two types.

In forced convection, the flow is driven by fans, pumps, and the like. A
simple example is a fan that blows air past you in hot surroundings and
cools you by replacing the air heated by your body with cooler air.
In free or natural convection, the flow is driven by buoyant forces: hot fluid
rises and cold fluid sinks because density decreases as temperature
increases. The house in Figure 1.24 is kept warm by natural convection, as
is the pot of water on the stove in Figure 1.25.
Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.

In contrast, convection is called natural (or free) convection if the fluid

motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density
differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid (Fig.).
Radiation

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of

electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation

does not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, heat
transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the
earth.

In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is

the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
In these examples,
heat is transferred by radiation (Figure 1.28). That is, the hot body
emits electromagnetic waves that are absorbed by the skin.
The rate of heat transfer by radiation also depends on the object’s color.
Black is the most effective, and white is the least effective. On a clear
summer day, black asphalt in a parking lot is hotter than adjacent gray
sidewalk, because black absorbs better than gray (Figure 1.30).
The reverse is also true—black radiates better than gray. Thus, on a clear
summer night, the asphalt is colder than the gray sidewalk, because black
radiates the energy more rapidly than gray. A perfectly black object would
be an ideal radiator and an ideal absorber, as it would capture all the
radiation that falls on it. In contrast, a perfectly white object or a perfect
mirror would reflect all radiation, and a perfectly transparent object would
transmit it all (Figure 1.31).
Such objects would not emit any radiation. Mathematically, the color is
represented by the emissivity 𝜀. A “blackbody” radiator would have an 𝜀 = 1
, whereas a perfect reflector or transmitter would have 𝜀 = 0 . For real
examples, tungsten light bulb filaments have an e of about 0.5, and carbon
black (a material used in printer toner) has an emissivity of about 0.95.
Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases
emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees. However, radiation is
usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids that are opaque to
thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation
emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the surface,
and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few
microns from the surface.
 The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted
by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

where is the emissivity of the surface. The property emissivity, whose value
is in the range , is a measure of how closely a surface approximates
a blackbody for which 𝜀 = 1.
 Expansion

𝛼=
The energy per unit mass required to change a substance from the solid
phase to the liquid phase, or released when the substance changes from
liquid to solid, is known as the heat of fusion.

The energy per unit mass required to change a substance from the liquid
phase to the vapor phase is known as the heat of vaporization.
Conduction

Latent heat of fusion of ice

=3.34 × 105 J/Kg
Internal Energy
Heat transfer by radiation

constant
 Newton's Law of Cooling

Statement:
It state that the rate at which a body loses heat is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between the body and that
of the surrounding.

The amount of heat radiated depends upon the area and nature
of the radiating surface.
If ‘θ’ is the temperature of the body at any instant and ‘θo’ the
temperature of the surroundings, then according to Newton’s
law of cooling, heat lost is proportional to the difference of
temperature between the body and surroundings i.e.( θ1- θo)
If dQ is the quantity of heat lost in a small time dt, then

Where k is the constant depending upon the area and the

nature o the radiating surface. The negative sign indicates that
there is decrease of heat with time.
 Expression when a heat body cools from θ1oC to θ2oC in time t

Consider a body of mass m, specific heat capacity S and at

temperature θ. Suppose the temperature falls by a small amount dθ
in time dt.

1
Where c is the constant of integration this equation is of the form
y=mx+c and it represents a Straight line.

If the cooling takes place rom θ1o C to θ2oC in time t then taking the
limits, we have
If the cooling takes place rom θ1o C to θ2oC in time t then taking the
limits, we have
t
FORBES Method
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xd3Qhxa5LLc
 References

Çengel: Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat

Transfer, Second Edition Pages 215 to 217

NPTEL Cryogenic insulation, Lec-33, 34, 35 Prof. M. D. Atrey, IIT

Bombay