PRIMARY

CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL TOOLS AND

1 THEIR MAINTAINANCE 4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 10

Introduction Learn about agricultural tools, their uses and how to

maintain them.

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required Range of agriculture tools. Eg. Hoe, spade, rake, axe,
wheelbarrow, machete, watering can, trowel, milking can,
spraying pump, boots, gloves.

Activities Ÿ Observation: In class, to display a range of agriculture

tools and learners try to name them and match them
with their use
Ÿ Visiting agricultural farm to observe the use, to
manipulate and to maintain available agricultural tools.
Ÿ Role play about the use of and care for agriculture
tools
Ÿ Group work to discuss about the prevention against
possible dangers of misusing of agricultural tools and
makes presentation.

Competencies practices Creativity

Team work
Communication

Language practice Discussion in groups

Study skills Ÿ Draw and name different agriculture tools

Ÿ Group agriculture tools based on their use
Ÿ Apply techniques of maintaining agricultural tools
Ÿ Apply techniques of storing agriculture tools

Revision Revision exercises provided.

1
Assessments A formative assessment of creativity, communication and
ability to work successfully in teams.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Identify the common used agriculture tools

Ÿ Explain the use of agricultural tools

Ÿ Explain the potential dangers of the misuse of

agriculture tools and how to prevent them

2
 Agricultural Tools
PRIMARY
CHAPTER AGRICULTURAL TOOLS AND
1 THEIR MAINTAINANCE
Agricultural Tools
4
Agriculture is the growing crops and keeping of domestic animals.
People who grow crops and keep domestic animal are called farmers.
Agricultural tools are also called farm tools.
To grow crops and keep animals we need different tools to use.
A tool is a simple machine we use to do work.

In groups discuss about the pictures below concerning the common tools
we use in agriculture and how we use them:
GARDEN TOOL USE

1 Hoe A hoe is use for:

to be illustrated (a person
♦ digging using a jembe
♦ planting
♦ Weeding

2 Spade Spade is used for:

♦ Picking up manure.
to be illustrated (a person
using a spade

3
 Agricultural Tools

3 Rake It is used for

Ÿ Leveling soil,
Ÿ Collecting rubbish
Ÿ Spreading manure

4 Wheel barrow Is used for:

Ÿ Carrying manure
Ÿ Transporting harvested crops

5 Slasher This tool is used for Slashing or cutting tall

grass

ady
(al
d
a te
r
st er
i llu ash
be g sl
o
t sin
u
6 Axe An axe is used for;
Ÿ Cutting big trees
Ÿ Chopping wood
Ÿ Splitting timbers

4
 Agricultural Tools

7 Panga This tool is used for;

Ÿ Cutting small branches
Ÿ Cutting trees
Ÿ Harvesting sugar cane

8 Forked hoe This is used to dig hard soil or

stony ground

(a d
a t ed forke
str a
i llu sing
be u
to man
wo be
jem

9 Watering can This tool is use for.

Ÿ Watering crops / plants
Ÿ Watering seedlings

10 Garden fork For mixing manure

trated
ei llus
to b

5
 Agricultural Tools

11 Trowel A trowel is used for;

Ÿ Transplanting
seedlings

12 Pick axe Pick axe or mattock is used for;

Ÿ Digging in rocky ground
Ÿ Digging in stony soils

s t r ated
u
e ill
to b

13 Secateurs This tool is used for;

Ÿ pruning crops and making cuttings for
plants
a
t e d(
a
l u str g a
l in
b e i us
to rson urs
pe cate
se

14 Sickle Sickle used for:

Ÿ Cutting grass
Ÿ harvesting cereals E.g: Rice, Millet
d
u s t rate
e ill
to b

6
 Agricultural Tools

15 Hand fork It is used for;

Ÿ Light weeding
Ÿ Removing seedlings from soil

16 Sprayer pump Is used for spraying crops and animals

str ated
e illu
to b

17 Milk can It can be used for;

Transporting milk to the market.

strated
e illu
to b

18 Tape measure Is used for spacing crops in the garden

str ated
e illu
to b

7
 Agricultural Tools

19 A burdizzo It is used to castrate male animals like a bull

d
ust rate
e ill
to b

20 A strip cup. Help to check condition of milk from the udder

str ated
e illu
to b

21 Drinking trough This tool is used for giving water to

birds in the farm like chicken

d
ust rate
e ill
to b

22 Feeding trough This tool is used for putting animals

feeds.

strated
e illu
to b

23 File For sharpening cutting tools

8
 Agricultural Tools

Activity
1. Visit the nearby animal and crop farm

2. Look at different tools used in crop growing and animal rearing.

3.In groups separate the tools used in
i). crop growing
ii). animal rearing
4. Name those tools used in both crop growing and animal rearing.
5. Draw the given tools in their exercise books
6.Give the use of the tool you have drawn
7. Mention other used for growing crops and rearing animals.

9
 Agricultural Tools
Activity
Tools are important to farmers because they are used to do different work on the farm as
shown in the pictures below

A B
illustrate
A boy collecting rubbish using a
rake and A girl transporting
rubbish in a wheel barrow

C D

illustrate
A woman digging using a
hoe.

1. What is taking place in the following pictures

a) picture A c). picture C
b). picture B d). picture D

2. Name the tool being used in picture B.

3.Which tool is the girl in picture C using?

10
 Agricultural Tools
Maintenance of agricultural tools.
These are different ways we can care for the tools so that they can work well and take
long without getting damage.

Look at the pictures below and write a sentence on what is taking place in each picture;

Activity
Discuss in groups what is taking place in the above pictures

1. The ways we can care for the agricultural tools include:

Ÿ Cleaning tools after use.

Ÿ Sharpening cutting tools.
Ÿ Replacing broken handles.
Ÿ Keeping tools in cool dry places.
Ÿ Oiling tools with moving parts like secateurs
Ÿ Paint metallic tools that need painting to avoid rusting
Ÿ Each garden tool should be used for the correct work it was made for.
2. Which other ways we can care for agricultural tools?

11
 Agricultural Tools
Storage of agricultural tools
Agricultural tools need to be stored or kept in a good place after use to protect them
from
Ÿ Damage caused by rusting
Ÿ Being stolen by thieves
Ÿ Chemical poisoning children
Ÿ cutting yourself and other people.

Ÿ When metallic tools are not kept in a cool dry place, they develops rust. Rust is a reddish
brown substance which covers metallic tools.
Ÿ Conditions needed for rusting include water and oxygen therefore when a tool is left
outside over a night it can easily rust.

Danger of rusting on agricultural tools.

Ÿ Tools become weak
Ÿ It makes cutting tools blunt.
Ÿ Make tools like wheel barrow leak.
Preventing agricultural tools from rusting.
- Keeping in cool dry places.
- Painting metallic tools.
- Greasing or oiling metallic tools with moving parts.

Look at the pictures below

illustrate The hoe which has

developed brawn rust ( brown
substance)

Activity
1. What do you observe in the two hoes?

2. How is the brown in hoe B called?

3. In groups discuss;
The conditions needed for rusting to take place.
Mention five other agricultural tools that can rust.

12
 Agricultural Tools
Precaution when using agricultural tools
1. Wear protective materials like boots, gloves and masks
2. Follow the instruction when mixing chemicals
3. Each garden tool should be used for the correct work it was made for

In groups discuss about the protective materials shown on the pictures below.
Gumboots Protect the foot Overall Protect the body
from sharp from harmful
objects like thorns chemicals
and broken
bottles.

Gloves Protect hands Mask Protect the head

from injury and also avoid
breathing in of
poisonous gasses

Activity 1.5
In groups discuss other protective materials used by farmers

13
 Agricultural Tools
Revision Exercise 1
1. Write the following in full

a). SET
b). ICT

2. What is a tool?

3.Give the use of the tools below.

i. rake
ii. hoe
iii. wheel barrow
iv. trowel
v. watering can
vi. spray pump

4. What is agriculture?

5. List down three tools used in animal rearing.

6. State any two dangers of rust on a tool

7 Give two conditions necessary for rusting to take place

8 How can rusting be prevented? Give three.

9.a) Name the tool shown in the diagram below.

b). What is the use f the above tool?

10. Why is it important to store the tools in a cool dry place?

14
 Tools and Object Production
PRIMARY
CHAPTER TOOLS AND OBJECT
2 PRODUCTION 4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 14

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required Clay, wires, fibres, knife/ razor-blade, needle or lancelet,

wood, sisal, sticks, manilla paper and scissor

Activities Ÿ Brainstorming: From a range of local materials learners

make patterns of those that can be used to make
specific objects (play, utility, learning)

Ÿ Practical group work: Different groups collect either:

Ÿ Clay and wires to make toys ,
Ÿ Fibres, knife/ razor-blade, needle or lancelet,
wood, sisal, sticks, to make utility objects,
Ÿ Papers, manilla paper and scissor to make
learning objects individually.
Ÿ Project: Learners choose specific object to make over a
week or two and bring them to be displayed in their
classroom and assessed.

Ÿ Discussion in small groups about the maintenance of

various objects produced.

Study skills Ÿ Select materials by type of objects to make

Ÿ Make toys, utility and learning objects using
appropriate materials (either clay, sticks or paper)
Ÿ Display dexterity for safety purpose in making objects

Competencies practices To be able to make play, utility and learning object

15
 Tools and Object Production
Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Faster making smart utility and learning objects

Learning outcomes Ÿ Identify the most common local materials used in

making various objects.
Ÿ Explain the techniques of making each type of objects
based on the materials used.
Ÿ Explain the maintenance of toys, utility and learning
objects produced.

16
 Tools and Object Production
PRIMARY
CHAPTER TOOLS AND OBJECT
2 PRODUCTION 4
Tools and object production
We can make different objects and tools from local materials we have in the environment.
Those objects and tools we make can help us to do different activities in our daily work.
Look at the pictures below of people making different objects from local materials:

A .Illustrate a woman weaving a B. Illustrate a man making a pot

basket.

D. Illustrate child a (girl) making a ball

and 2 girls making dolls from plant
C. illustrate a man making a cap. fibres.

Activity 2.1
Discuss in groups what is taking place in each picture.
Which row material is being used in picture B

Sources of materials we use to make objects

Some materials are got from:
♦ Swamps ♦ Gardens
♦ Forests ♦ Lakes or rivers
♦ Bushes/ grass ♦ Markets or shops

17
 Tools and Object Production

Look at the map of the materials got from these sources

Palm leaves Banana fibre

Bushes

Fire wood Sisal

Papyrus Shells

Swamps

Clay Reeds

18
 Tools and Object Production

Look at the map of the materials got from these sources

Making utility objects using local materials
We can make objects and tools using different Sources.
Using the pictures below, discuss about the materials they using to make
different objects.

C. Illustrate a boy and a girl making

shapes in papers using a scissor.

Activity
Write a short sentences about what is taking place in A, B and C

19
 Tools and Object Production

Activity
In groups discuss objects made from local materials in the previous page.

We can make different objects like dolls, plates, cups, pots, toy car using different materials

Making play objects using clay

Activity
1. With the help of your teacher collect the clay
soil from the nearby swamp. 1

2. Knead the soil to reduce the air and water content in it.

3. Make the shape of your own object.

4. Leave the objects to dry in a shade for three to four days

20
 Tools and Object Production
Making utility objects from plant fibres
Utility objects are objects made from local materials and can be used at home

Different plant materials like sticks, leaves and banana fibres are used.

Activity
1.With the help of the teacher what we need:
children will collect different ▶ Banana fibres
materials in preparation for a ▶ small sticks.
practical lesson of making things.

2. They will use different

material in the environment to
make things they use for playing.

3. Final products made in

banana fibres.

Activity
Name the object made from banana fibres below:

21
 Tools and Object Production
Making learning objects using paper
Activities
1.Get a piece of paper What we need:
▶ Papers
▶ A pair if scissor.
▶ A ruler
▶ A pencil

2. Using a pencil and a ruler draw

the geometrical shape you need
like a triangle or a rectangle on a
piece using a pencil.

3.Get a pair of scissor or a razor

blade cut the shape following
the line you have drawn.
as shown below

Activity 2.6
a. Name the shapes made in papers below:

b. In your small, name other shapes that you can cut from papers.
c. What other materials can be used to make shapes?

22
 Tools and Object Production
Maintenance of utility objects.
Different objects made from local materials should be maintained by;
Ÿ Keeping them in a dry place
Ÿ Drying them well like those made in clay
Ÿ Handle them with care and properly

Importance of the things we make

Ÿ playing with
Ÿ income generation
Ÿ decoration
Ÿ source of money
Ÿ domestic use
Ÿ teaching and learning

Look at the picture below

Revision exercise 2
1. Name four local materials used in the to make objects.

2. Which type of soil is good for modeling?

3. Give two sources of local materials

4. Mention three objects made from clay

5. Suggest one way of maintaining utility objects

6. Give three uses of objects made from local material

7. What are local materials?

8. Mention two tools used for cutting papers.

23
 Computer my Friend
CHAPTER PRIMARY

3 COMPUTER MY FRIEND
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 16

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required XO Laptop, computer, Flash disk, SD card, CDs, books,

Notebook, Pen, blackboard, chalk.

Activities Ÿ Exercise on switching the computer on and off.

Ÿ Practicing typing a text using the keyboard
Ÿ Individual exercises on calling and sending messages
using a mobile phone
Ÿ Exercises to identify ie name, opening and closing and
Browse activity in sugar interface
Ÿ Practice switching from Sugar to Gnome and vice
versa.
Ÿ Individual exercises on renaming and deleting a
document in the Journal
Ÿ Small group discussion on sending documents to each
other
Ÿ Exercises on using different techniques in searching a
document in the journal
Ÿ Practice on copying a document from flash to journal
and vice versa

Competencies practices Creativity

Team work
Communication

Study skills Ÿ Differentiate and use ICT terms in daily life

Ÿ Manipulate with guidance different activities in Sugar
Interface
Ÿ Interact with Sugar user interface to open and close an
activity.

24
 Computer my Friend
Study skills Ÿ Practice to call and send sms as the means of
communication using mobile phones
Ÿ Perform deletion and renaming a document
Ÿ Produce a document and be able to share it with a
friend
Ÿ Practice different techniques to search a document.
Ÿ Copy a document from different locations

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Learners should be able to use common ICT terms,

differentiate Sugar and Gnome user interfaces and apply
file management in the Journal.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Explain the common terms used in ICT.

Ÿ List the common ICT terminologies
Ÿ Identify the elements in sugar user interface.
Ÿ Explore different activities.
Ÿ Switch from Sugar to Gnome interfaces
Ÿ Identify and explore elements in Gnome user interface
Ÿ Locate name and Erase a document in the journal
Ÿ Arrange documents and apply search techniques in the
journal.

25
 Computer my Friend
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
Information and communication technologies enable communities to produce, get and
communicate among themselves .

The ICTs help in connecting the world by using World Wide Web, e-mail,
telephones, fiber optics and satellites

Importance of ICT :
Ÿ Improving education and health care,
Ÿ Improving governance,
Ÿ Building an economy capable of creating new job opportunities and feeding its
population,
Ÿ Increasing Rwanda's competitive advantages in the global market and
Ÿ Ensuring sustainable development through poverty alleviation projects and enable
them compete in the global market.

What are computers?

Computers are machines that perform tasks according to a set of instructions, or programs.

26
 Computer my Friend
Parts of computer
A computer is a system of many parts working together.
The physical parts are the parts which you can see and touch. They are also collectively
called hardware.
Hardware refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch.

Software.
Ÿ Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software.

The operating system (OS)

The most important part of hardware is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It's the
"brain" of the computer

1. System unit
The system unit is the main part of a computer system.

it is the most important of these components is the

central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which
acts as the "brain" of your computer.

27
 Computer my Friend
2. Monitor

3. Keyboard

4. Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and
select items on your computer screen. A mouse
usually has two buttons:
A primary button (usually the left button)
A secondary button (right button).
Many mice also have a wheel between the two
buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly
through screens of information.

Mouse pointers
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in
the same direction
When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click
the primary button.

Types of computers
Computers range in size and capability. At one end of the scale are supercomputers, very
large computers with thousands of linked microprocessors that perform extremely
complex calculations
The personal computer, or PC, is designed to be used by one person at a time. This
section describes the various kinds of personal computers:

Ÿ Desktops,
Ÿ Laptops
Ÿ Handheld computers
Ÿ Tablet PCs.

28
 Computer my Friend
Desktop computers
Desktop computers are designed for use at a desk or table. They are larger and more
powerful than other types of personal computers.
The main component of Desktop computers the system unit and other components, like
monitor, mouse, and keyboard, connect to the system unit.

Laptop computers
Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen. They are often called
notebook computers because of their small size.
Laptops can operate on batteries, so you can charge and take them anywhere.
The laptops combine the CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen folds
down onto the keyboard when not in use.

Laptop computer(picture)

29
 Computer my Friend
Handheld computers
Handheld computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are battery-powered
computers small enough to carry almost anywhere. Although not as powerful as desktops
or laptops.

Tablet Pcs
Tablet PCs are mobile PCs that combine features of laptops and handhelds. Like laptops,
they're powerful and have a built-in screen. Like handhelds, they allow you to write notes
or draw pictures on the screen, usually with a tablet pen instead of a stylus.

Activity
What can you do with computers?

In the workplace, many people use computers to

Ÿ keep records
Ÿ analyze data,
Ÿ do research, and manage projects.
Ÿ to connect to the Internet,
At home, you can use computers to find information, store pictures and music, track
finances, play games, and communicate with others—and those are just a few of the
possibilities.

Types of devices
There are three types of devices which are:

Ÿ Input devices
Ÿ Output devices and
Ÿ Storage devices

1) Input device
Input devices are devices which are used to input data's in the computer.
i.e: Mouse, Keyboard, Scanner, Microphone

2) Output device
Output devices are devices which are used to output data's from the computer. i.e:
Printer, Speaker,

3) Storage device

Are devices which are used to store data in the computer system. i.e.: Hard Disk (the
main storage device in the computer system).

30
 Computer my Friend
Turning off your computer properly

When you're done using your computer, it's important to turn it off
properly. Not only to save energy, but also to ensure that your data is saved
and to help keep your computer more secure. Best of all, your computer will
start quickly the next time you use it.

Use the Power button on the Start menu

To turn off your computer, click the Start button, and then click
the Power button in the lower right corner of the Start menu. The Power
button normally looks like this:

The Power button (sleep)

When you click this button, your computer goes to sleep. Windows
automatically saves your work, the display turns off, and any noise from the
computer's fan stops. Usually, a light on the outside of your computer case
blinks or turns yellow to indicate that the computer is sleeping. The whole
process takes only a few seconds.

Exploring the Internet

The Internet is a network that links millions of computers around the
world. Not so long ago, few people had heard of the Internet. Today, the
Internet has revolutionized how people use computers.

Many people depend on it daily to;

Ÿ Communicate with others.
Ÿ To get the information they need.
Ÿ To carry out business

Connecting to the Internet

To connect your computer to the Internet, you must first sign up with an
Internet service provider (ISP).
An ISP provides access to the Internet. To find an ISP in your area, try
looking in your telephone directory under "Internet Service Providers."

31
 Computer my Friend
Getting on the web
Once you've established an Internet connection, you can access the web
using Internet Explorer, a web browser included with Windows.

To start Internet Explorer

To get back to your home page at any time, click the Home button in Internet
Explorer.

Entering a web address

Just as every residence has a unique street address, every webpage has its own web
address. That address is called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
For example, the URL for the Microsoft main website is http://www.microsoft.com.

If you know the URL for a page, you can type it directly into Internet Explorer:
1. In the Address box, type the URL.
2. Click the Go button or press ENTER to go to the website. Use the Address box
to type URLs

Tips
Ÿ You don't have to type http://. For example, you can type www.microsoft.com and
Internet Explorer will fill in the rest.
Ÿ To quickly enter a URL ending in ".com", type the part between "www." and ".com"
and then press CTRL+ENTER.

Searching the web

With many webpages we have, you can find the information you need easily
Major web search engines include Google, Yahoo! Search, MSN Search, AOL Search,
and Ask.com.

To search the web using the Search box

1. In the Search box, type a few words or a phrase about a topic that interests you—for
example, "chocolate cake recipe." Be as specific as you can.
2. Press ENTER or click the Search button .
A page of search results appears. Click one of the results to go to that website. If you
don't see what you're looking for, click Next at the bottom of the page to see more
results, or try a new search.

32
 Computer my Friend
Note:
Ÿ Be aware that some search results are paid advertisements. These are
usually labeled as "Sponsored Sites" or "Sponsored Links.”

Saving favorite Webpages

When you discover a website that you'd like to return to regularly, save it as a
favorite in Internet Explorer. That way, when you want to return to the
website, you can click it in your Favorites list, without having to remember
or type its web address.

To save a webpage as a favorite

1. In Internet Explorer, go to the webpage you want to save as a
favorite.
2. Click the Add to Favorites button
3. and then click Add to Favorites.
3. In the Name box, type a name for the webpage, and then click Add.

To open a favorite
1. In Internet Explorer, click the Favorites Center button .
2. Click the Favorites button if it is not already selected.
3. In the Favorites list, click the webpage that you want to open.

Getting started with e-mail

E-mail (short for electronic mail) is a fast and convenient way to
communicate with others. You can use e-mail to:

Ÿ Send and receive text messages. You can send an e-mail message to
any person with an e-mail address.
E-mail is two-way. You can receive messages from anyone who knows your
e-mail address, and then read and reply to those messages.

Ÿ Send and receive files. Apart from text, you can send almost any type
of file in an e-mail message like documents, pictures, and music. A file
sent in an e-mail message is called an attachment.

Ÿ Forward messages. When you receive an e-mail message, you can

forward it to others without retyping it.

33
 Computer my Friend
What do I need before I can use e-mail?
To use e-mail, you need three things:
Ÿ An Internet connection: To connect your computer to the Internet, you must first
sign up with an Internet service provider (ISP). An ISP provides you with access to
the Internet. You also need a modem.

Ÿ An e-mail program or web-based service: You can use Windows Mail, an e-mail
program included with Windows.

Ÿ An e-mail address: You get an e-mail address from your ISP or web-based e-mail
service when you sign up. An e-mail address consists of a user name.

Ÿ Setting up Windows Mail: Once you have an e-mail address and an Internet
connection, you're ready to send and receive e-mail.

Before you add an account, you'll need to get some information from your ISP like :
Ÿ your e-mail address
Ÿ Password
Ÿ the names of your incoming and outgoing e-mail servers
Ÿ certain other details.
To add an e-mail account in Windows Mail Click to open Windows Mail.
Ÿ On the Tools menu, click Accounts.
Ÿ Click Add, click e-mail Account, click Next, and then follow the
instructions.

The Sugar User Interface

The Sugar user interface help you in learning through personal expression. The user
interface differs from the traditional Desktop metaphor. It uses a "zooming”

With Sugar, you zoom between views: from your network neighborhood to your current
activity.
Home View
We use the Home View to begin new Activities.
When you have clicked on an Activity's icon, please wait for that Activity to start.

34
 Computer my Friend
If you get impatient and happen to click again on the Activity's icon, you may end up
with that Activity being started twice.
When you click on an Activity's icon, you will see a start-up view while that Activity
initializes. Once the Activity is running, you will be placed into its Activity View. If the
Activity fails to start, you will instead be returned to Home View

To get to the Home View, click the Home icon on the Frame or press the F3 key.

The Home View has several modes. Each mode has a different arrangement of
Activities:
Ÿ Your favorite Activities in a ring (Ring mode)
Ÿ Your installed Activities in a list (List view)
Ÿ Your favorite Activities arranged freeform (Freeform mode)

Favorites View

1. Search box
Use the search box to find activities. Note: If in List view you see fewer Activities than
expected, you may need to click on the small X at the right end of the search box to
undo an unintended search request.

35
 Computer my Friend

2. View modes
Click an icon to switch to a different view. Hover over the Favorites icon to see a menu
that lets you pick Ring mode or Freeform mode.

3. Activity icon
Click an Activity icon to launch that Activity (which causes it to appear on the Frame).
Only Activities that have been “starred” as favorites appear in this view. (Please see the
List View below for more details.)

4. XO icon
Hover the pointer over the "XO" in the center of the Home View to bring up a menu
and to access the Sugar Control Panel (Please see the chapter on Customizing Sugar).

5. Active-Activity icon
The icon of the currently active Activity appears under the XO icon.

List View
Use the List view to manage all of your Activities and to choose which Activity icons will
appear on the Favorites view.

36
 Computer my Friend
1. Activity entry
Each entry in the list has:
· a star, which is colored for favorite Activities, which appear in Ring
mode or Freeform mode. Click a star to color or clear it.
Ÿ an icon
Ÿ a title
Ÿ a version number
Ÿ how long ago it was installed

2. Icon
Click the icon to launch the Activity. Caution: By clicking on Erase in the
icon's hover menu, you can uninstall that Activity from your system.

3. Version number
Lets you compare your version against an availability list such as
wiki.laptop.org/go/Activities to see if it is up to date.

4. Scroll bar
The Activity list may extend beyond the screen. Use the scroll bar to move
through the list.

Favorites View in Freeform Mode

The Freeform mode of the Home View works the same as the Ring mode,
but the icons are arranged arbitrarily instead of in a circle. You can drag the
icons in this View to visually group them in a way that makes sense to you.

37
 Computer my Friend
XO Menu.
Use the hover menu that appears over the XO icon to access the Sugar
Control Panel and to shutdown or restart the computer.

Activity View
When you play with an Activity you are using the Activity View. Return to
the most recently used Activity that is still running by clicking the Activity
View icon at the top left of the Frame (shown below).

You can also use the Activity button for this purpose if your keyboard has
one. Use the F4 key if you are using a keyboard that does not have an
Activity button.

Use the appropriate Activity icon in the top right of the Frame, from any
View, to return to the Activity View for any running activity.

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Sugar Activities always use the full screen. This figure shows the Activity
View for the Browse activity.

1. Activity menus
Activities have one or more menus that appear at the top of the screen.

2. Menu tabs
Click on the tabs found just below the Activity menu to switch between the
menus for an Activity.

3. Activity workspace
The rest of the screen is used by the Activity itself, in this example, Browse.

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All Activities have an Activities menu.

1. Activity name
The content of the Activity name field is how this specific Activity session
entry appears in the Journal. Be sure to enter a unique name here, if you
want to make it easy to later find this session among the other instances of
this same Activity shown in the Journal.

2. Share with menu

Use the 'Share with' pull-down menu to share an Activity with your
neighbors. Many Activities support sharing.

3. Keep button
Click the Keep button to force an Activity to save its current state in the
Journal.

4. Stop button
Use the Stop button or press ctrl + esc to save the Activity in the Journal
and close it.

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Many Activities have an Edit menu:

1. Undo/Redo
The undo and redo buttons are application specific but usually refer to
undoing or redoing your most recent edits.

2. Copy/Paste
There are buttons for copy and paste. You can also use the keyboard
shortcuts ctrl + c and ctrl + v for copy and paste respectively. Items you
copy end up on the clipboard, which is found in the left edge of the Frame.
Items you paste come from the clipboard.

3. Search
Many Activities support search: you can find text within the activity by
entering it into the search box.

4. Back/Forward
Another common pair of buttons allow you to step backward or forward
through a sequence (in the case of Browse, these buttons step you through
the recent pages you have been viewing).

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Many Activities also have a View menu.

1. The Full-screen button
Click the Full-screen button to make the Activity to use 100% of the display,
hiding the menu.

2. Shrink/Grow
Use the Shrink and Grow buttons to scale the display if the Activity
supports this feature.

Leaving full-screen mode:

1. Full-screen button
Use the Full-screen button to view the menus again.

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Many Activities use trays at the bottom of the screen to hold

collections.
1. Tray button
Click the Tray button to toggle the appearance of the tray.

2. The tray
The tray typically appears at the bottom of the screen. The Tray contains
objects associated with the activity. In the Browse activity, bookmarks
appear in the tray. In the Record activity, the media objects you create are
placed in the Tray. Retrieve objects by clicking on their thumbnails in the
tray.

Neighborhood View
You can use the Neighborhood View to connect to the Internet and to
collaborate with others.

To see the Neighborhood View, click the Neighborhood icon on the Frame.
You can also use the Neighborhood button for this purpose if your
keyboard has one, or press the F1 key.

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1. Search menu
You can find people, activities, or access points using the search menu.

2. Shared Activities
You can join an Activity by clicking the Activity's icon. Shared Activities appear as icons
in the Neighborhood View.

3. XO icon
Other Sugar users appear in the Neighborhood View. By hovering over an XO icon, you
can discover the nickname of that person and can add them as a friend or invite them to
join you in a shared activity.

4. Mesh icon
A mesh icon lets you connect to a school server or other computers on a mesh (802.11s)
network. The OLPC XO has three mesh network channels. By clicking on a mesh icon
you join that particular mesh network, and disconnect from an Access point network.
The other XO icons are shown will change according to who is on that network.

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5. Access point
WiFi hot spots (Internet access points) appear as circles in the Neighborhood view. If
you hover over a circle, the name of the access point (the ESSID it broadcasts) appears.

Group View
The Group View shows you your friends. (XO icons that are dimmed represent friends
who are currently offline.)

To show the Group View, click the Group icon on the Frame or press the F2 key.

Adding a friend

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You add friends to the Group View from the Neighborhood View.

When you hover over an XO icon, the Make friend menu option appears. Click this
option to add that person as a friend.

Your new friend's icon then appears in the Group View.

Removing a friend

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 Computer my Friend
You can remove a friend from the Group View using the hover menu. Click Remove
friend. That person's icon disappears from the Group View.

Inviting a friend

From the hover menu, you can also invite friends to join your current Actvity. There is
more information about invitations and sharing in the Collaborating chapter.

The Frame
The Frame, which you can get to from any view, contains a clipboard, incoming
invitations and notifications, buddies, open Activities, and global information that is used
across all Views.

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1. Clipboard
The left-hand edge of the Frame serves as a clipboard. You can drag objects such as
images and text to and from the clipboard, and from and to activities.

2. Zoom menu
The Zoom menu is on the upper-left edge of the Frame. Use it to move between the
four Sugar views: Neighborhood, Group, Home, and Activity.

3. Open Activity list

The list of currently open Activities appear on the top edge of the Frame. The active
Activity is highlighted. (The Journal always appears here.)
Sometimes an unlabeled circle appears here --- it usually represents an additional full-
screen session started by an Activity whose icon already appears in the top edge of the
Frame.
Invitations also appear on this portion of the Frame. They appear as icons in the color
of the person who sent them.

4. Active buddy list

People you are currently collaborating with appear on the right edge of the Frame.
5. System status
Battery, speaker, and network status appear on the lower edge of the Frame.

The Clipboard

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You can drag items on the clipboard into Activities. A hover menu also lets you remove
them from the clipboard, open them in an Activity, or save (keep) them in your Journal.

The Journal
The Journal Activity is a diary of everything you do within Sugar. Sugar Activities use the
Journal as a place to save your work. You can also can use the Journal as a place to revisit
old work.

Use of the Journal

Ÿ To save or keep the record
Ÿ To open, and to close external memories
Ÿ To rename, delete and send a document
Ÿ To copy from flash to journal and vice versa

Showing the Journal

To show the Journal, click the Journal icon on the Frame.

On an XO laptop, you can press the magnifying glass key in the top row of the keyboard
to immediately open the Journal and search.

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Journal features

The Journal View contains a menu and a list of journal entries:

1. Star

You can mark important entries by clicking on the star icon for that entry. When you
click the star icon, the star is colored in. Normally, when the Journal becomes too full,
the system deletes some entries. If an entry is starred, it is never deleted.

2. Icon

Each Journal entry has an icon. The color of the icon shows who created the entry. For
example, if you copy a photo from a friend, the photo's icon has your friend's colors..

Caution: "Erase" deletes any data associated with the entry shown. For example, if you
delete an entry that shows that you installed an Activity, you delete the Activity as well.

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3. Entry name

Each entry has a name. You can edit the name by clicking it. If the Journal view is
showing the contents of a removable storage device, the Linux file name is shown here,
with the path and the file name extension stripped off.

4. Buddy icons

If other participants joined you in this Activity, icons in their colors appear here.

5. Elapsed time

The time since the most recent change to the entry is displayed.

6. Detail view button

Click this button to see detailed information about the entry. See "Journal detail view",
below.

7. Scroll bar

When there are more entries in the Journal than can fit on the screen, you can use the
scroll bar to scroll through them.

8. Search box

Type words in the box to search for entries that match those words. Entries are displayed
when they contain all of the typed words. Comparison will be against all of:
Ÿ the entry name field
Ÿ the description field (see "Journal detail view")
Ÿ the tag field (see "Journal detail view")
Note: the small x button at the right of the box shows that searching is being applied. To
cancel your search, click on that x.

9. Select by type

Choose an entry type to display only entries of that type. Types include the Activity that
created an entry, or the object type, such as, picture, sound, text, and so on.

10. Filter by date

You can limit the Journal View to entries made within the past day, week, or month.

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Journal detail view

The Detail view appears when you click the Detail view button for an entry. This view
lets you examine and annotate the entry.

1. Back icon line

You can click anywhere in this line to return to the main Journal View.

2. Star and Icon

These items duplicate their functions on the main Journal view - a star represents a
special, never-deleted Journal entry and the icon color indicates who created it originally.

3. Thumbnail image
Each entry has a thumbnail image that is created automatically. The image show the
Activity screen when the last change to the Journal entry was saved.

4. Entry name
You can change the name of the entry by clicking it and typing in a new name.

5. Elapsed time
Displays the time since the most recent change to the entry is displayed.

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6. Description field
You can type a description of the entry, which you can find later using the Search box.
Use a description to remind you of what you did. For example: "Flowers I saw on the
hike to the waterfall".

7. Tag field
You can enter search tags. Use keywords to describe a journal entry so that you can find
it later using the Search box. You can use keywords to help you "group" this entry, for
instance by origin or context.

8. Participants
Displays the XO icons of each person who participated in a shared Activity.

9. Resume button
You can click the Resume button to resume an Activity. A hover menu may show
additional options. For example, you can resume working with an image using either the
Browser or the Paint Activity.

10. Copy button

You can copy a Journal entry to the clipboard (or to one of the removable storage
devices shown on the bottom edge of the Journal screen) by clicking on the Copy
button.

11. Erase button

You can erase an entry by clicking the Erase button.
Caution: Once you erase an entry, it cannot be restored unless you have backed up your
Journal

When resuming from the Detail View, you can choose among different Activities.

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Using removable media

When you insert removable media—such as a USB device or SD card—it appears as an

icon on the bottom edge of the mail Journal view.

1. Journal
Click the Journal icon to shows the Journal View.

2. USB device
Click the USB icon (or SD icon) to show the removable-media file system.

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You can drag Journal entries onto the USB device. You can drag entries back from USB
device back to the Journal.

Caution: It may take time for the

hover menu to appear. It is easy to
make a mistake and click the icon
itself when you intended to click
Unmount.

Caution: If you have a Terminal

running you may inadvertently have
your removable media locked. The
safest way to remove media is after
powering off your computer.

To remove the external file system, choose Unmount on the hover menu.

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EXCERCISE

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 Writing Skills
CHAPTER PRIMARY

4 WRITING SKILLS
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 8

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required XO Laptop, books, Notebook, Pen, blackboard, chalk

Activities Ÿ Exercises on changing font type, enlarging and reducing

font size

Ÿ Exercises on changing text colours, typing, moving and

checking spelling in the text

Ÿ Individual exercises on using a frame key also reducing

and adding volume

Ÿ Practice on using the left and right click on the touchpad

(mouse)

Ÿ Group work on searching/connecting to friends in the

neighborhood view.

Ÿ Practice using arrow keys to move the cursor downward,

upward and in different ways.

Ÿ Individual exercises on writing an autobiography.

Key Competencies To be able to perform write activity

Study skills - Write a text and apply formatting methods and techniques
- Construct or copy paragraphs and texts
- Perform writing text and paragraphs with a more speed
- Use correctly the special keys and touchpad

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Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Learners should be able to use the keyboard and touchpad

(mouse) correctly, and use the special keys, and perform
text formatting accurately.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Describe the different ways of formatting and editing a

text
Ÿ Apply the keyboard special keys according to their roles.
Ÿ Use the special keys to interact with the sugar interface
Ÿ Identify the special keys and use them accordingly.

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CHAPTER PRIMARY

4 WRITING SKILLS
4
The Microsoft Word window

There are four main parts of the Microsoft Word window:

The toolbar: The toolbar contains buttons for basic commands, including saving and
printing. To find out what a button does, rest your mouse pointer on it. A box pops up
showing the function of the button.

The format bar: The format bar contains buttons that you can use to format the text in
your document. For example, you can choose the font, color, and alignment of your text.

The ruler: Use the ruler to check the layout and placement of text in your document.
The document area. This is where you type your document, make changes to the text, and
apply your formatting.

The basic parts of the Microsoft PowerPoint 2003 window.

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Menu Bar
Contains a list of options to manage and customize documents.

Standard Toolbar
Contains shortcut buttons for the most popular commands.

Formatting Toolbar
Contains buttons used for formatting.

Ruler
Used to set margins, indents, and tabs.

Insertion Point
The location where the next character appears.

Scroll bars
Used to view parts of the document.

Status Bar
Displays position of the insertion point and working mode buttons.

Typing text
When you're ready to get started, type in the document area of Word. A flashing vertical
line called the cursor indicates where the next text that you type will appear. To move the
cursor within text, click where you want the cursor to appear. When you want to start a
new paragraph, press ENTER.

Selecting text
Whenever you want to do something to text in your document, such as copy it or format
it, Underline it, putting in italic or in Bold you need to select it first.

To select text, position the mouse pointer to the left of where you want to begin your
selection. With the pointer positioned, click and hold the left mouse button while you
drag the pointer over the text that you want to select. The selected text will be
highlighted. Once you've completed your selection, release the mouse button.

Text selected below

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Copying and moving text
If you have text in one part of your document that you want to appear in another part,
there are two ways to move the text around without having to retype it: You can copy and
paste it to another location, or you can move it to another location.

When you copy text, it is placed in the Clipboard. You can then paste it in a different
location. The original text is preserved.

When you move text to another location, the original text is not preserved. You might
find this method useful when you want to rearrange the sentences and paragraphs in your
document.

To copy text and paste it in another location

1. Select the text that you want to copy.
2. On the Home menu, click Copy.
3. Move the cursor to the location where you want to insert the copied text.
4. On the Home menu, click Paste. or Right click using a mouse where you want to insert
the copied text then choose paste.

Tip
o To quickly copy text that you've selected, press CTRL+C. To paste it, press
CTRL+V.

To move text to a different location

1. Select the text that you want to move.
2. Point to the text that you've selected, and then click and hold the left mouse button.
3. Drag the selected text to the place in your document that you want it to appear.

Inserting and deleting text

Word makes it easy to insert and delete text wherever you want. To insert text, click where
you want to insert the text and then just start typing. To delete text, select the text that
you want to delete, and then press DELETE.

Tip
· If you make a mistake while you're editing the text in your document, you can
always undo it. Press CTRL+Z to undo your last action.

FORMATTING TEXT
Formatting means changing the appearance of a text by using bold, italicized or
underlined options or a combination of the three.

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Steps in formatting text

Ÿ Select the text you want to change.

Ÿ Click the Bold button on the Formatting toolbar or Ctrl + B
Ÿ Click the Italic button on the Formatting toolbar or Ctrl + I
Ÿ Click the Underline button on the Formatting toolbar or Ctrl + U
Ÿ Word automatically displays your changes

Tip
Ÿ You can also use the commands on the format bar to change the font, font
size, and font style; Bold, Italic and Underline.

Ÿ CTRL + B = Bold
Ÿ CTRL + I = Italic
Ÿ CTRL + U = Underline

Font Size
· Click Format on the Menu Bar.
· Select Font from the menu list. The Font dialog box appears.
· Select a size from the Font Size list.
· Look at the text in the preview window as you try different sizes.
· Click OK.

Note:Remember you can also change the font size from the Formatting toolbar.

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Class Activity:
Type the Rwanda National anthem and format it with the following;
1. Let the font type be “Lucida Bright”
2. Let the heading of the anthem be with 'Font Style” which is “Bold , Italic, and
Underlined”
3. Still, let the “Font size the all anthem be 16 and in Green “Colour”

To change the color

1. Select the text whose color you want to change.
2. On the Home menu, click Font.
3. Under Color, click the color that you want.

Here's a picture of a document with some different fonts and colors applied:

BULLETED AND NUMBERED LISTS

Bulleted and numbered lists help to simplify steps or items to the reader.
A bullet is usually a black circle but it can be any other symbol used to highlight items in
a list.
Numbers (or letters) are used when information has to be in a certain order.

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To Create a Bulleted List:
Ÿ Click the Bullets button on the Formatting toolbar.
Ÿ Type the first item on your list and press Enter.
Ÿ The next line will begin automatically with a new bullet.
Ÿ Type the next item on your list and press Enter.
Ÿ When your list is complete, press the Enter key twice to stop the bulleted list.

To Create a Numbered List:

1. Click on the Numbering button on the Formatting toolbar.
2. Type the first item on your list and press Enter.
3. The next line will begin automatically with the next number.
4. Type the next item on your list and press Enter.
5. When your list is complete, press the Enter key twice to stop the numbered list.

Activity:
Type all the names of primary six teachers and work on them the following;
Bullet their names using Roman Numerals.

Saving your document

It's a good idea to save your document while you are working on it so that in case your
computer stops working for some reason, you will not lose any of your work. Saving the
document will also allow you to come back to it later if you want to work on it again.

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Save and Save As

Saving a file means storing data using a computer.

Saving a New File

When Saving a File for the First Time:

· Click File on the Menu Bar.
· Select Save / Save As
· The Save As Dialog Box appears.

To save the document

On the File menu, click Save.

If you haven't saved the document yet, you will be asked to provide a name for the
document and location on your computer to save it to:
1. In the Save in box, click the location where you want to save the document.
2. In the File name box, type a name for your document.
3. Click Save.

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Printing your document

On the File menu, click Print. In the Print dialog box, use the Page Range box and the
Number of copies box to specify which pages you want to print as well as how many
copies. When you're done, click Print.

Using your keyboard

Whether you're writing a letter or entering numerical data, your keyboard is the main way
to enter information into your computer

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How the keys are organized
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:

Typing keys: These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and symbol keys
Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform
certain actions.

Function keys: The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled as
F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12

Navigation keys: These keys are used for moving around in documents or WebPages
and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN,
DELETE, and INSERT

Numeric keypad: The numeric keypad is for entering numbers quickly.

Using keyboard shortcuts.

Keyboard shortcuts are ways to perform actions by using your keyboard. They're called
shortcuts because they help you work faster.

Useful shortcuts
The following table lists some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts
Press this To do this
Windows logo key Open the Start menu
ALT+TAB Switch between open programs or windows
ALT+F4 Close the active item, or exit the active program
CTRL+S Save the current file or document (works in most programs)
CTRL+C Copy the selected item
CTRL+X Cut the selected item
CTRL+V Paste the selected item
CTRL+Z Undo an action
CTRL+A Select all items in a document or window
F1 Display Help for a program or Windows
Windows logo key
Display Windows Help and Support
+F1
ESC Cancel the current task
Open a menu of commands related to a selection in a program. Equivalent
Application key to right-clicking the selection.

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Using navigation keys
The navigation keys allow you to move the cursor, move around in documents and
webpages, and edit text. The following table lists some common functions of these keys.
Move the cursor or selection one space or line in the
LEFT ARROW, RIGHT ARROW,
direction of the arrow, or scroll a webpage in the direction of
UP ARROW, or DOWN ARROW
the arrow

Using the numeric keypad

The numeric keypad arranges the numerals 0 to 9, the arithmetic operators + (addition), -
(subtraction), * (multiplication), and / (division), and the decimal point as they would
appear on a calculator or adding machine.

Tips for using your keyboard safely

Using your keyboard properly can help avoid soreness or injury to your wrists, hands, and
arms, particularly if you use your computer for long periods of time. Here are some tips
to help you avoid problems:
Ÿ Place your keyboard at elbow level
Ÿ Center your keyboard in front of you. If
Ÿ Type with your hands and wrists floating above the keyboard, so that you
can use your whole arm to reach for distant keys instead of stretching
your fingers.
Ÿ Avoid resting your palms or wrists on any type of surface while typing. If
your keyboard has a palm rest, use it only during breaks from typing.
Ÿ While typing, use a light touch and keep your wrists straight.
Ÿ When you're not typing, relax your arms and hands.
Ÿ Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.

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 Computer my Friend
EXCERCISE

70
 Graphic and Multimedia
CHAPTER PRIMARY

5 GRAPHIC AND MULTIMEDIA

4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required XO Laptop

Activities Ÿ Exercises on drawing variant shapes commonly met at

home, at school, and in their environment
Ÿ Practice editing and cropping images made by other
activities
Ÿ Practice on managing colours to produce a smart image
or photos
Ÿ Exercises on commenting on the images so that it is
meaningful.
Ÿ Exercises on drawing lines, square, rectangle and circle
using shapes and /or free hand
Ÿ In pairs using Paint draw a plan of the classroom and
colour it in.

Competencies practices To be able to use Paint activity to draw and colour

different shapes and to enhance project work.

Study skills Ÿ Control the movement of the touchpad (mouse)

Ÿ Draw and produce images for different objects

Ÿ Master drawing geometric shape seen in class

Ÿ Copy the images drawn by others.

Ÿ Improve the presentation of the image

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 Graphic and Multimedia
Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Learners are be able to use the Paint Activity to draw,

colour and design different shapes and improve projects
correctly.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Draw by free hand class and home objects.

Ÿ Apply different colours to improve drawn objects.

Ÿ Insert a comment on an image to make it more

meaningful

Ÿ Resize and locate the image in the paint window.

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 Graphic and Multimedia
Using Paint

Paint is a program used to draw, color, and edit pictures. You can use Paint like a digital
sketchpad to make simple pictures and creative projects or to add text and designs to
other pictures, such as those taken with your digital camera.

The parts of Paint

To open Paint, click the Start button, click All Programs, click Accessories, and then click
Paint.

When you start Paint, you see a window that is mostly blank, with just a few tools for
drawing and painting. The following illustration shows the different parts of the Paint
window:

Working with tools

Paint includes a handy collection of drawing tools in the toolbox. You can use these tools
to create freehand drawings and add a variety of shapes to your pictures.

Draw a line
Some tools, like the pencil, brush, line, and curve, let you make a variety of straight,
curved, and wiggly lines. What you draw is determined by how you move the mouse as
you draw. You can use the line tool to draw a straight line, for example.

1. In the toolbox, click the Line tool.

2. In the Color box, click the color you want to use.
3. To draw, drag the pointer across the drawing area.

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 Graphic and Multimedia
Draw a squiggly line
Your drawings don't have to be composed of just straight lines. You can use the
Curve tool to create smooth curves, for example. The Pencil and Brush can be used
to make completely random, free-form shapes.
1. In the toolbox, click the Pencil tool.
2. In the Color box, click the color you want to use.
3. To draw, drag the pointer across the drawing area.

Tip
· If you want to make a wider line, use the Brush instead. The Brush can be customized
with a variety of thicknesses.

Draw a shape
Some tools, like the Rectangle and ellipse, let you add shapes to your drawing. The
technique is the same regardless of which shape you choose. For example, you can
use the Polygon tool to draw a polygon, which is a shape that can have any number of
sides.
1. In the toolbox, click the Polygon tool .
2. In the Options box, click a fill style:
3.
Fill options
o Outline. Your shape will be just an outline, with a transparent interior.
o Outline with fill. Your shape will be filled with the current background color.
(To set a background color, in the Color box, right-click a color.)
o Solid. Your shape will be filled with the current background color, but it will
not have any outline.
3. To add a polygon, drag the pointer across the drawing area, and then click to end the
first side.
4. Drag the pointer to create the next side, and then click to end the side. Repeat this as
needed for additional sides.
5. To create the final side and close the polygon, double-click.

Erase part of your picture

If you make a mistake or simply need to change part of a picture, use the eraser. By
default, the eraser changes any area you erase to white, but you can change the eraser
color. For example, if you set the eraser color to yellow, anything you erase turns to
yellow.

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 Graphic and Multimedia
1. In the toolbox, click the Erasertool .
2. In the Color box, right-click the color that you want to erase with. If you want to
erase with white, you don't have to select a color.
3. Drag the pointer over the area you want to erase.
Changing the effect of the drawing tools
The Options box, located below the toolbox, is where you can change how a tool draws. You
can set the thickness of the tool's brush (which affects the weight of what you draw on the
screen) and whether the shapes you draw are outlined or solid.

Change the brush stroke of the Brush

1. In the toolbox, click the Brush tool
2. .
2. In the Options box, click the brush shape you want to paint with.

Picture of brush options

3. To paint, drag the pointer across the drawing area.
Saving a picture
Save your picture frequently to ensure that you don't accidentally lose your work. To do that,
on the File menu, click Save. This saves all of the changes you made to the picture since the
last time you saved.
The very first time that you save a new picture, however, you will need to give your picture a
file name. Follow these steps:
1. On the File menu, click Save.
2. In the Save as type box, select the file format you want.
3. In the File name box, type a name.
4. Click Save.

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 Graphic and Multimedia
EXCERCISE

76
 Programming for Children
PRIMARY
CHAPTER PROGRAMMING FOR
6 CHILDREN 4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 20

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required XO Laptop ,Black board, chalk

Activities Ÿ Practicing how to drag and drop the blocks from the
Turtle Palette to the main area.
Ÿ Practicing how to delete a block by dragging it back
onto the palette.
Ÿ In Pairs work exercises on correctly arranging the
blocks in order to draw different lines.
Ÿ Individual exercises on drawing a square, rectangle and
a circle by arranging the blocks in the correct sequence.
Ÿ Group discussion on calculating areas and perimeters
of the shapes
Ÿ Practicing and learning Scratch programming
environment.
Ÿ Exercises on the Looks and Motion Menus and writing
a sequence of instructions for a specific outcome
Ÿ Practicing and Learning on choosing sprite, changing
costumes and backgrounds.
Ÿ Exercises on creating animations, using the steps of
saving and opening a project in Scratch.

Competencies practices To be able to design and construct geometric shapes in

Turtle art activity and Create animations using Scratch
Activity.

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 Programming for Children
Study skills Ÿ Construct and produce different geometric shapes
using turtle art instructions.

Ÿ Observe practice and organise the turtle art

instructions correctly.

Ÿ Practice and correctly manage the components of

scratch window.

Ÿ Create and animate objects by arranging the

instructions required in the proper sequence.required.

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Students should be able to design and constructed

geometric shapes in Turtle Art activity and create
animations using Scratch Activity.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Identify different tools in the turtle art window

Ÿ Describe different components of scratch window

Ÿ Associate different commands to develop animations

Ÿ Outline steps of saving and opening a project

Ÿ Explain how to save and open a file

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 Programming for Children
PRIMARY
CHAPTER PROGRAMMING FOR
6 CHILDREN 4
Learning with Turtle Art

We can use Turtle Art to draw colorful art patterns using a turtle that accepts
instructions for movement.

With visual programming blocks, you can snap together programs by combining them in
ways to create anything you can imagine.

What am I learning?
You are learning how to build a set of instructions for a pretend turtle to follow. With
repeating instructions and conditional following of the instructions, your pretend turtle can
draw shapes and lines over and over again with interesting results.

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 Programming for Children
Why is this important?
You learn to predict what each instruction will cause the turtle to create with line art. It helps
you detect patterns, understand the repetition of instructions, and understand following
instructions only when a certain condition is met, which is important in computer
programming, mathematics, and science.

Getting Started
Turtle Art allows you to create drawings using the Logo programming language. You can see
what programmers do to make programs by giving the turtle programming commands.
Start by clicking the + on the Blocks menu to see the tools you use to create your drawings by
moving the turtle and having him draw colored lines.

Commands for the Turtle

Here are the commands you can give to your turtle on the turtle tab.

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 Programming for Children
clean - Clears the screen of all
drawings and sends the turtle to
the middle.

forward - Moves the turtle

forward the number of pixels
entered.

back - Moves the turtle backward

the number of pixels listed.

left – Changes the turtle’s

direction to the turtle’s left by
the angle specified.

right – Changes the turtle’s

direction to the turtle’s right by
the angle specified.

arc – Draws part of a circle. The

angle is the part of the circle the
turtle draws. The radius
determines the width (size) of
the circle.

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 Programming for Children
Here is a sample of some angles. They can be used for the right and left commands and
to draw arcs.

Turtle Art Pen Colors

With the SetColor command, you enter a number that represents the colors shown in the
table below. If you use SetColor 19, your turtle draws a bright yellow line.

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 Programming for Children
Commands for the turtle's pen
Click the tab for the pen to see the following tools:

pu = pen up – Picks up the pen so that the turtle

does not draw.

pd = pen down – Puts the pen down so that the

turtle can draw.

setpensize – Sets the width of the pen. The larger

the number the fatter the line.

set color – Sets the color of the line that the turtle
draws. The value can be 0 to 99. See the table for
colors.

set shade – Sets the brightness of the color. 0

makes it blacker. 99 makes it whiter.

fill screen – Fills the entire screen with the color

and shade shown.

Try Turtle Art

What shape will this set of commands make? Try it and see.
Drag each puzzle piece onto the turtle's floor. Next, click the bar next to the piece, then
type numbers to enter the number values you see, such as color and shade. Once all the
pieces are locked together, click the first puzzle piece to start your turtle.

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 Programming for Children

Did your turtle draw this shape?

If your turtle didn't draw the shape of an uppercase A, or if

the color is different, check each puzzle piece one at a time,
pretending that you are the turtle trying to understand the
command you gave it. When you see a number or a piece
that is out of place, change it and try again.

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 Programming for Children
Turtle Art Letters
Can you make your turtle draw more letters? Try some of these with curved lines.

And a capital N has straight lines but drawn at an angle.

Here are the blocks you'd use to make the letter B. The arc blocks make the curved lines.

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 Programming for Children
Here are the blocks to make the letter C, just one turn and an arc.

Here are the blocks to make the letter N.

Here's my name, JENNY, spelled by the turtle.

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 Programming for Children
Repeating Commands
Sometimes you want to repeat a set of commands over and over to create a pattern. Use
the flow menu blocks to repeat commands to the turtle.

Working with one of the flow commands, repeat, makes the turtle repeatedly draw lines.

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 Programming for Children
Any commands that are attached to the repeat will be repeated the number of times
specified by the number on the top.

This example draws a circle then picks up the pen, moves forward 10 spaces then turns
right 90 degrees. This command repeats 4 times.

Numbers Commands
The numbers commands allow you to perform math in your commands.

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 Programming for Children

number – specify the number you want to use in the operation.

+ – performs addition: 5 + 3 = 8

- – performs subtraction: 5 – 3 = 2

X – performs multiplication: 5 x 3 = 15

/ – performs division: 5 / 3 = 1.67

mod – gets the remainder after division: 5 mod 3 = 2

[That is, 5 / 3 = 1 r. 2]

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 Programming for Children

This is similar to the example for the repeat, but in this case we are changing the color each
time it repeats. We take the current value of color (which is 0 the first time through) and add
2 to it, giving us 2 for the color on the second loop, 4 for the third and so on.

One note on the color: If you increase the color value each time then when it gets to be
more than 99 it starts over again at 0.

Shapes and Spectrums of Colors

Can you create this?

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 Programming for Children
Can you create this?

Solutions

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 Programming for Children

Since the value of a color is a number, you can use that value to set the radius of the circle.

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EXCERCISE

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 Air, Wind and Sound
CHAPTER PRIMARY

7 AIR, WIND AND SOUND

4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 14

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required winnower ,balloons, seedling, beam balance.

Activities Ÿ Practical work: Collecting balloons, beam balance, a kit

to demonstrate that air has weight, occupies space and
can be compressed.

Ÿ Performing an experiment to prove the existence of

oxygen in air and its utility: burning a candle, and cover
it by a transparent cup

Ÿ Investigation: to prove the utility of Carbon dioxide for

green plants: covering grass with an opaque object (like
wide stone) and observe the colour of the covered
grass after some days (two, four, six and ten days)

Ÿ Investigation: The dangers of Carbon monoxide: in a

closed container containing a living animal (e.g. lizard),
burning a candle and observe. The system to be
compared with a similar one which doesn't have a
burning candle inside.

Ÿ Discuss how we know it is windy by looking out a

window

Ÿ Have the students list and discuss all the things that
they have seen wind do.

Ÿ Practical: Collect millet, sorghum, winnower to practice

and show that wind can be used in winnowing.

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 Air, Wind and Sound

Activities Ÿ Project: Collect various samples of seedlings, plant three

and do a follow up (this can be extended to many years
in school)

Ÿ Field trip: Visit areas spoiled by wind to compare the

effects of the wind in the environment

Ÿ Brainstorming: to gain understanding of the nature of

the sound

Ÿ Group discussion: Learners discuss about the sound

propagation and transmission

Ÿ Role play: In small groups make a devise (two boxes

with a long string) and investigate the sound
transmission.

Ÿ Practical: In small groups use two tubes to illustrate the

sound reflection

Ÿ Produce sound and noise and discuss their differences

Ÿ Discussion: Discuss the damaging effects of noise

Ÿ Discussion: Discuss ways of protecting ears from noise

Competencies practices To be able to explain properties and importance of air and

effects of wind as well as sound in surrounding
environment.

Study skills Ÿ Design devises of get enough air in homes / classroom.

Ÿ Compare the various components of the air basing on
their utility
Ÿ Design an experiment to identify the side effects of
Carbon monoxide
Ÿ Compare the types of winds
Ÿ Apply techniques of prevention of our environment
from strong wind
Ÿ Design and use a devise showing that the sound travels
through a medium
Ÿ Design and use devises to protect one's ears from noise

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 Air, Wind and Sound

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Apply learning to perform experiments on properties of

air and management of wind.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Identify properties of air

Ÿ Explain the composition of air

Ÿ Explain the utility of air components in daily life

Ÿ Explain the dangers of component of air how to

prevent them

Ÿ Identify the types of wind/

Ÿ Explain the importance of air and wind in the

environment

Ÿ Explain the dangers of wind and how to prevent them.

Ÿ Explain the nature of the sound

Ÿ Explain the sound propagation

Ÿ Distinguish sound from noise

Ÿ Identify the damaging effects of noise on hearing

system

Ÿ Explain how to protect ears from noise

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Air
Air is a mixture of gases
Air is very important in the environment to both plants and animals life.
It is made up of different gasses
The gases that combine to form air are called composition of air
Moving air is called wind

Composition of air
Air in the atmosphere is composed of many gases and they occupy
different percentage as shown below.

Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Rare gases 0.97 %
Carbon dioxide 0.03%

A pie chart showing percentage of air

Properties of air
Ÿ Air has weight
Ÿ Air occupies space (has volume)
Ÿ Air can move things
Ÿ Air expands when heated
Ÿ Air can be compressed.

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 Air, Wind and Sound

Activity
Experiment to show that air expand when heated.
1. Get two balloons and two empty plastic bottles

2. Cover two bottles with the balloons

3. Put one bottle A in cold water and

another bottle B in hot water

A B

Observe
1. What do you observe in
a). bottle A b). bottle B
2. Why does the balloon in diagram B expand?
3. What happens to the balloon when the bottle B is removed from the hot
water?

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Activity
Experiment to show that air has weight
1. Get two balloons

2. Fill one balloon with air and leave one without air.
Tie the two balloons on balance

Observe
1. Are the two balloons balancing?

2. Which one is heavier?

3. Why is it heavier?

Uses of oxygen
Ÿ For breathing by both plants and animals
Ÿ Support burning
Ÿ Help in germination of seeds
Ÿ Liquid oxygen is used as fuel for rockets

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Activity
Curing out an experiment to show that oxygen support
burning.

1. Light the two candles

2. Cover one of the candles and

leave the other

3. Wait for some minutes

Observe
What happen to candle A?

Why do think it happen so?

Uses of Carbon dioxide

Ÿ plants use to their it make food
Ÿ For preserving food and drinks in factories
Ÿ Used in fire extinguishers to put off fire
Ÿ to cool drinks in fridges

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 Air, Wind and Sound

In groups discuss the uses os carbon dioxide

CARBON DIOXIDE

Activity
1. Why is carbon dioxide packed in bottled drinks like soda?

2. A part from preserving drinks discuss with your friend other uses of carbon dioxide

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Dangers of carbon dioxide in the environment
When carbon dioxide combines with other gases like carbon monoxide
produced by factories and vehicles they lead to air pollution and causes the
following effects
Ÿ Global warming
Ÿ Leads to acidic rain which can kill animals
Ÿ Causes respiratory disease like asthma
Ÿ Destruction of plans.

D
TE
RA
ST
LU
IL
BE
TO

Activity
a. In groups discuss about other kind of air pollutions.
b. Is smoking one of air pollution? How?

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 Air, Wind and Sound
How to prevent dangers of carbon dioxide
Ÿ Planting trees.
Ÿ Control bush burning
Ÿ Build industries far from where people live
Ÿ Treating smoke from factories
Ÿ Proper disposal of waste
Ÿ Education people about the danger of air pollution.

Activity
1. Name four components of air.
2. Which gas is used in a fire extinguisher?
3 Give two uses of oxygen.
4. State two dangers of carbon dioxide in the environment
suggest one way of avoiding dangers of air pollution
WIND
Wind is a moving air.
The strength of wind results into different types.

Types of wind
Strong wind.
This can make large branches of
trees move and can blow off papers

Calm wind
Here almost there is no wind at all
and the wind vane does not move

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Light wind
This makes the leaves of trees to move
slowly and you can also feel it on the body
and also does not move the wind vane

Gale wind
This type of wind can make large trees bend and break the branches of trees

Stormy wind
Here houses and trees are blown off
and can cause floods

Wind instruments
A wind vane
Ÿ This is an instrument used to tell the direction of wind.
Ÿ The arrow of the wind vane points the direction from which wind is coming from
Ÿ If wind is blowing from the north going to the south, the wind vane points in the
north.

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Uses of air and wind
1. Air supports burning (oxygen)
2. Wind is a source of power to drive wind mills.
3. Air is used in germination (oxygen).
4. Carbon dioxide is used to preserve drinks.
5. Air is used in winnowing seeds.
6. Butane gas is used in gas cookers.
7. Air is used by birds to fly.
8. Wind helps in crop pollination.
9. Animals breathe in air.
10. Moving air helps to cool our bodies.
12. Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers
13. Wind sails boats/ships/paper kites.

Activity
Look at the table below

D
TE
RA
ST
LU
IL
BE
TO

In groups discuss what is happening in the pictures

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Dangers of strong wind
- Strong wind is an agent of soil erosion.
- Strong wind breaks down crops and trees.
- Strong wind blows off roofs of houses.
- Make flying plane crush
- Wind spread diseases like flu, cough, and measles
- Wind raises dust, spoiling our eyes and environment as well.
- Strong winds can capsize boats

Activity
Study and discuss the table below showing effects of wind

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Prevention of dangers of wind
Ÿ Afforestation – this planting trees.

Ÿ Re a forestation- is planting trees where they have been cut.

Trees act as wind break by reducing the speed of wind and help to reduce on the dangers
caused.
Ÿ Build houses with strong materials.
Ÿ Wear life jackets when crossing or fishing in big water bodies like lakes or rivers

Look at the life jacket below.

The life jackets contain sponge material which makes a person to float in case you fall in
a water body

Revision Exercise 7.1

1. What is air?

2. Give the four composition of air.

3. State two uses of oxygen.

4. How do we call a moving air

5. Mention three use of wind

6. Name any two types of wind.

7. Which components of air help plants to make their own food?

8. Give two dangers of wind in the environment

9. How can we protect the environment against the dangers of wind

10.State two dangers of carbon dioxide.

11. States three properties of air.

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 Air, Wind and Sound
SOUND ENERGY.

Sound
Ÿ Sound is a form of energy produced by vibration of an object. Or Sound is a
form of energy that enables us to hear.
Ÿ Sound is said to be a form of energy because it enables people to do work.

Types of sound
1. Loud sound,
2. Soft sound,
3. Noise,
4. High and low sound.
Music: is an organized sound produced by regular vibrations while noise is a
disorganized sound produced by irregular vibrations.

Sources of sound
A source of sound is where sound waves originate or come from.
There are two main sources of sound

Ÿ Natural sources of sound

Ÿ Artificial sources of sound.
Natural sources of sound
These are materials that produce their own sound naturally
Examples of natural sources of sound include
Ÿ Birds
Ÿ Animals
Ÿ Thunder
Ÿ Volcanic eruptions.
Ÿ Water falls
Insects like bees and mosquitoes produce sound by rapid flapping of their wings.

Grasshoppers and locust produce sound by rubbing their hind legs against their wings.

Some examples of natural sources of sound are shown below

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 Air, Wind and Sound
2. Artificial sources of sound.

These are materials controlled by people in order to produce sound.

They are mainly musical instruments.

Examples of artificial sources sound include;

Xylophones, drums, long drum, bells, thumb pianos, brass band, keyboard drums,
rattles, clappers, guitar, flute and whistle.

A bow harp A drum Xylophone

Activity
1) In one sentence explain the term sound

2) List two main sources of sound

3) How is sound produced

4) Give a difference between noise and music

5) How does the voice of a human being produce sound

6 ) Draw any three musical instruments and name them.

HOW SOUND TRAVELS

Ÿ sound travel by sound waves

Ÿ For sound to travel there must be a medium.A medium transmits sound waves
from the source to the destination.
A medium is any state of matter such as solids, liquids and gases.
Ÿ Sound travels fastest in solids, faster in liquids and fast in gases
N.B sound doesn't travel through a vacuum. Reason; there is no medium in a
vacuum
Ÿ

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 Air, Wind and Sound
So, sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gas/air.
Sound does not travel through a vacuum because there is no matter (media)
An echo sounder (fathometer) is a device used on ships to measure the depth of water
bodies like lakes, oceans or seas.
Sound can be reflected. Reflected sound is called an echo

Sound waves produced by the dog

Activity
How sound travels through solids.

a) Place a watch on one end of a wooden table place your ear on the other end,
you will clearly hear the ticking of the clock hands.

b).Get two empty box of matches or any small box.

Tie a string connecting the two boxes and keep some distance
Let one person whisper in one box as another person put the other in his or her ear.

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Activity
How sound travels through liquids.

a) Put a stone in a basin of water and hit it using another stone from normal air.

The sound heard in loud showing that sound travels in liquids.

Damaging effects of sound

Effects of sound can be damaged by obstacle that prevent sound from travelling long
distance
- Obstacles are things that stop sound waves by absorbing or changing its direction

There are two types of obstacle

Ÿ Heard obstacle like hills and mountains
Ÿ Soft obstacles like mattress ,caution and soft board

Note:Soft obstacles absorb sound and prevent it from moving along distance. Hard
obstacle causes reflection of sound that results into echo

Echoes
- An echo is a reflected sound.
- Echo is formed by the obstruction of sound waves.
- Echoes have the same characteristic as the original sound.
- Smooth hard surfaces produce the best echoes while soft surfaces absorb sound.

Uses of echoes:
· Bats use high pitched echoes to trap their prey at night in darkness.
· Bats use echoes to dodge obstacles at night.
· Pilots use echoes from hills, cliffs ends of tall building to avoid accidents.
· Sailors and sea men use echoes to determine the depth of the sea using an echo
sounder or a fathometer

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 Air, Wind and Sound
How to prevent our ears from noise.

Ÿ Use thick curtains in windows and doors.

Ÿ Use of soft materials in loud speakers.
Ÿ Control the volume of sound.
Ÿ Putting soft materials on the headsets.

Devices used in storing sound.

Computer Diskettes. Audio Compact Discs (CDS)

Digital video Discs (DVDS) IPODS Flash Discs

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 Air, Wind and Sound
Revision Exercise

1. What is sound?

2. Name any two natural and artificial sources of sound

a) Natural sources
b) Artificial sources

3. How is sound produced?

4. Name three types of sound

5. Through which medium does sound travel

i) fastest
ii) slowest

6. Why can't sound travel through a vacuum?

7. What is an echo?

8. Give two uses of echo to animals

9 mention two ways of preventing our ear from loud noise.

10 Name three devices used to store sound.

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 Soil
CHAPTER PRIMARY

8 SOILS
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 12

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required Different samples of soil, field out of school

Activities - Observe various samples of soil collected from different

sites, label them according to their characteristics

- Field visit in school surrounding to investigate the

suitable use of each type of soil

- To carry out an investigation on the characteristics of

fertile soil

- Visiting farms to gain experience on how to prevent and

control soil erosion

- Practical work to apply measures for preventing and

controlling soil erosion: Plant threes, make bench terraces.

Competencies practices To be able to choose good soil and prevent it from

erosion.

Language practice Discussion in groups

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 Soil
Study skills - Recognize suitable soil for cultivation

- Match the type of soil with its use

- Apply various methods and techniques to stop soil

erosion.

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Classification of soil and soil erosion protection

Learning outcomes - Define soil

- Identify types of soil.

- Identify different componentsof the soil

- Explain the use of soil

- Describe the characteristics of fertile soil

- Identify methods and techniques of erosion prevention.

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 Soil
CHAPTER PRIMARY

8 SOILS
4
Definition

Soil is the top layer that covers the earth's surface.

It is a non- living component of the environment which is useful to plants,
people and other living things.

How soil is formed

Soil is formed by:

Weathering:
The breaking down of rocks to form soil.

Decomposition:
The rotting of dead plants and animals to form soil.

Components of soil
-Air
- Humus
- Water
- Rock particles
-Living organisms

Importance of components of soil

a) Water
Ÿ It makes the soil soft for roots to grow easily.
Ÿ It is used for seed germination.
Ÿ Plants use water to make food.
Ÿ Cools the plants during transpiration.
Ÿ It dissolves nutrients in the soil for roots to absorb.
b) Air
- Air is used by animals in the soil to respiration.
- Air is used during germination.

c) Humus
- Dead decayed plants and animal matter

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 Soil
How is humus formed?
- When plants and animals die, they rot and form humus.

Activity
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT SOIL CONTAINS WATER
- Collect a lump of soil from a garden

ins
nta
- Put the soil into the sauce pan and put the sauce pan on fire l co
t soi
tha
w
sho
to
ents
e rim
p
- Ex ater
w
- Cover the sauce pan with a metallic lid/sauce pan.

What do you observe?

Water droplets on cover come from water escaping from the soil in form of water
vapour.

b) Air
- Air is used by animals in the soil breathe
- Air is used during germination.

Activity
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT SOIL CONTAINS AIR
- Fill a glass with half dry soil lump.
- Fill the remaining part with water and put it on a table.
- Look at the glass to see what happens.

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 Soil
Observation
Bubbles are seen coming out of the soil.

Conclusion
Bubbles show air escaping from the soil.

d) Rock particles
These are inorganic materials like: sand, gravels, clay formed by weathering.
They provide space for air to occupy.

e) Living organisms
Examples of animals that live in the soil are bacteria, moles, porcupines,
earth worms and ants.

Importance of living organism in the soil

- Aerate the soil.
- Softens the soil
- Add soil fertility by breaking down dead plants and animal remains.

Why do you think earthworms come out of the soil after raining?
- To breathe /take in oxygen.

ant earthworm
Types of soil
There are three types of soil namely:
a) Loam soil
b) Sand soil
c) Clay soil

Loam soil Clay soil Sand soil

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Activity
1. What is soil?

2. Identify any three components of soil.

3. How is soil formed?

4. Mention the three types of soil.

5. How is clay useful to man?

Loam soil
Loam soil is a mixture of sand , clay and organic matter. Organic matter
(humus) consists of decayed plants and animal matter. Loam soil usually
has adequate water, air and humus to sustain plant growth.

Characteristics of loam soil

- It contains a lot of humus.
- It's particles are fairly arranged
- It contains both clay and sand particles.
- It has a lot of humus for plant growth.
- It is properly aerated.
It has good drainage that is it holds enough water for the crop growth.

Importance of loam soil

- It is good for crop growing.

Why is loam soil the best for plant growth?

- It contains a lot of humus.
- It contains balanced particles of sand and clay.

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 Soil
Sand soil
It has the biggest soil particles.

Characteristics of sand soil

- It is loose, light and easy to dig.
- It contains a lot of air.
- It allows water to pass through it easily.
- It has less humus, so it's not fertile.
- It has the highest rate of drainage that is to say it dries quickly in hot
weather.

Uses of sand soil

· For building houses.
· For making blocks.
· For making glasses.
· For making sand paper.

Note:
Capillarity is the uptake of water through the soil particles.
Drainage is the capacity of the soil to allow water to pass through it.

Importance of sandy soil.

- Used for building.
- Used for making glass and sand papers.

Sand soil is not good for crop growing because it has a low water holding
capacity.

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Activity

1. Why is loam soil the best for crop growing?

2. Mention one characteristic of loam soil.
3. Identify the type of soil which used for making glass.
4. What is capillarity?
5. Which type of soil is good for making objects like pots?

Clay soil
It has sticky particles and is the best for pottery.

Characteristics of clay soil

- It has the finest particles.
- It does not allow water through it easily.
- It is the best soil for pottery.
- It is poorly aerated.
- It is not good for plant growth because it water logs.
- Clay soil has the highest rate of capillarity.

Uses of clay soil

- For pottery or modeling.
- It is used for making things like pots, plates, charcoal stove and cups.

Characteristics of fertile soil

- It contains a lot of humus for plant growth.
- It's particles are well arranged.
- It is easy to dig.
- It is properly aerated.
- It has good drainage that is it holds enough water for the crop growth.

Activity
1.Match the type of soil below to their uses.

a) Clay soil for growing crops.

b) Loam soil for building houses.
c) Sand soil for making pots, cups and others objects.

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2. Why is loam soil the best for crop growing?

3. Mention three characteristics of fertile soil.

4. What is capillarity?

5. Which type of soil is good for making objects like pots?

Soil profile
- It is the arrangement of soil from top to bottom layers

Layers of soil
Top soil
Sub-soil
Gravel
Parent rock
Layers of soil

Top soil

Sub soil

Gravel

Parent rocks
The top layer is the top soil

Ÿ It is the best layer for plant growth.

Ÿ It has a lot of humus.
Ÿ It is dark in colour.
Ÿ It is a layer where living organism live.

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 Soil
The second layer is the sub soil
Ÿ It is not a good layer for plant growth.
Ÿ It is a thick light brown layer.
Ÿ There are no living things in it.

The third layer is gravel

Ÿ It has small rock particles, gravel and clay.

The fourth layer is the parent rock

Ÿ Has a channel of water running through one rock another.
Soil erosion
This is the caring away of top soil by its agents.

Agents of soil erosion

These are things which carry top soil from one place to another.

When the land is not covered by vegetation, the soil become expose and can
easily be carried by wind, running water, animals and man from one place to
another.

a) Running water.
When the land is not covered with any grass or plant materials and it rains the
running water can easily carry the top soil. This is common on hilly or sloppy
areas.

b) Wind.
This is common in dry areas where the plant dry off leaving the land
uncovered. The strong wind then can easily carry the top fertile soil inform of
dust.

c)Animals.
Animals can be agent of soil erosion in the way that they eat all the grass and
leave the soil bare. This make wind and running water to carry top soil and
sometimes animals them self when they step on this soil, they carry it on their
hoofs or feet.

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 Soil
d) Man
Man is an agent of soil erosion in such a way that he causes a lot of changes in
the environment by doing activities like lumbering, agriculture, road
construction and others. This leaves the soil bare making wind or water to carry
away the top soil.
Causes of soil erosion
These are main activities that make land to remain open and enable the agents
to take away top soil. They expose the soil to agents. These include:

a) Deforestation
This is the cutting down of trees in a large number leaving the land bare or
open. When the soil is left bare, it makes it easy for wind and water to take away
the top soil.

b) Bush burning
This is the burning of vegetables cover leaving the land expose to agents of soil
erosion which make it easy for soil to be carried away.

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 Soil
c) Over grazing
This happen when the animals are grazed in the same piece of land for a long
time. The animals therefore eat all the growing grass and make the soil remain
without any vegetation cover then the soil can easily be carried.

d) Mono-cropping
This is when the same type of crop is grown on the same piece of land for long
time without leaving it to rest. This make the soil to be exhausted and crops can
no longer grow well and cover the soil so this make it easy for water or wind to
take the top soil.

e) Poor methods of farming.

The poor methods of farming include ploughing along the slope, planting
along the slope and not making terraces. This makes the running water from the
slope to curry top fertile soil. The poor methods farming include:
- ploughing along the slope.
- planting along the slope.
- not making terraces.
This makes the running water from the slope to curry top fertile soil.

f) Over cultivation
This is when crops are grown on the same piece of land season after season
without leaving it to rest. This makes the soil to lose its texture and can easily be
eroded.

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 Soil
g) Drought
This caused by a long period of sunshine where the sun heat make many grass
and other plants to dry off making the land to remain bare then soil can easily
be carried by wind.

h) Over stocking
This is keeping many animals in a small piece of land to graze. The animals will
eat all the grass and leave the soil open to agents of soil erosion.

Activity
Look at the activities below.
Discuss some of the human activities that can lead to soil erosion.

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 Soil
Types of soil erosion
a) Sheet erosion
The top soil is washed away uniformly by running water. It occurs in area where
the land is left bare by human activities like over grazing and bush burning.

b) Gulley erosion (deep channels)

This is when the channels are made into the soil by running water. It takes a lot
of soil which live the roots not covered. Gully erosion is common in hilly.

c) Rill erosion (shallow channels)

This is when the flowing water takes away the top soil and begins making
shallow holes into the ground. It occurs in areas where the land has been
ploughed.
d) Splash erosion /raindrop erosion
This is when the rain droplet either falls directly on bare land or falls from the
roof of buildings.

e) Stream /river bank erosion

This is when the flowing river move soil from either sides of it bank. This is
common in rainy season when the level and the speed of water is increased.

f) Wind erosion
This is when the top soil is taken away by wind. It is common in dry areas or
deserts. It causes a lot of air pollution.

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 Soil
Prevention and control of soil erosion
a)Afforestation
This is the planting of trees where they have never existed. This also keeps the
soil covered from direct rain drops.

b) Re-afforestation
This is the planting of trees where they have been cut. This also keeps the soil
covered from direct rain drops.
E S
T RE
N G
N TI ED
P LA TRAT
E
O PL LLUS
PE BE I
TO
c) Terracing
This is when the slope is cut or dug into steps to reduce the speed of running
water. This is the most common method practice in Rwanda because the land
hilly in many part of the country.

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 Soil

d) Contour ploughing
This is the ploughing across a slope. It helps to reduces the speed of running
water

e) Mulching
This is the covering of top soil with any plant material (dry plant materials). It
help to keep soil moister and prevent direct raindrop into the soil.

RO P S W I T H MULCH
M A N C OV E R ING THE C
A WO RATED
TO BE ILLUST

f) Bush fallowing
This is leaving a piece of land to rest without digging for period of time. it make
land to regain its fertility

g) Cover cropping
This is planting cover crops between plants that take long to mature.
Cover crops are crops that are planted between plants that take long to mature.

h) Crop rotation.
This is the growing of different crops on the same piece of land season after
another. It helps to maintain soil fertility and crops should not be of the same
species. Crop rotation was discovered by Lord Town Shed.

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 Soil
How soil loses its fertility
- Leaching. It is the sinking of plant nutrients deeper into the soil where
plant roots can't reach.
- Soil erosion
- Monoculture (mono-culture)
- Bush burning

Activity

1. What is soil erosion?

2. Mention the three agents of soil erosion.
3. Give any three causes of soil erosion.
4. Name two types of soil erosion.
5. Identify any one effect of soil erosion.

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 Soil
Revision exercise
1. What is soil?

2. Choose the components of soil from the list below:-

a) Water
b) Soup
c) Humus
d) Cars
e) Living organisms
f) Rock particles
3. Which types of soil is used for making pots?

4. Give three characteristics of loam soil

5. How is sandy soil useful to people?

6. Name the three types of soil.

7. Which type of soil is good for plants growth?

8. What is soil erosion?

9. Give three types of soil erosion

10. Identify any two agents of soil erosion.

11. Mention three causes of soil erosion.

12. How can soil erosion be prevented? Give two ways.

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 Classification of Animals
CHAPTER PRIMARY

9 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 12

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required Variety of animals, container, water

Activities Ÿ Group work: Classification of animals in our

surroundings and group them according to their major
characteristics
Ÿ Group work to discuss about the respiration of
vertebrates
Ÿ Visiting the school surroundings, discuss how animals
move, feed and reproduce
Ÿ Group work to discuss about different ways of animal
breathing and experiment with insects (cockroach,
grasshopper)
Ÿ Play role to simulate animals' locomotion. Crawl, walk,
fly.
Ÿ Visiting the school surroundings, discuss how animals
move and feed.

Competencies practices To be able to classify the animals according to their

backbone, locomotion, feeding, reproduction and
respiration mode.

Language practice Discussion in groups

Study skills Ÿ Differentiate external features of animals.

Ÿ Make patterns of different animals basing on how they

move, feed, respire, and reproduce in our environment

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 Classification of Animals

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Groups of animal according their locomotion, feeding,

respiration and reproductive modes.

Learning outcomes Name the major groups of animals.

State the major classes of animals.

Give respiration mode of animals.

Describe the different ways of animal locomotion.

Identify different modes of animal feeding.

Identify different modes of animal reproduction.

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 Classification of Animals
CHAPTER PRIMARY

9 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
4
Classification of living things

Classification means grouping of organisms according to their

characteristics. Basic characteristics of living things are:
1. They reproduce.
2. They respond to stimuli
3. They respire
4. They feed
5. They grow
6. The excrete
7. They move
Living things in the environment are divided in to two groups
Ÿ Plants
Ÿ Animals
Groups of animals
Animals in the environment are grouped into:
a) Vertebrates
b) Invertebrates.
Activity

Look at the pictures below and discuss.

lion snake fish

spider turkey monkey

The animals above can be classified into two main groups.

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 Classification of Animals
Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals with back bone.

Classification of vertebrates
Classification means grouping of organisms according to their
characteristics. Vertebrates are classified or grouped into five groups:
a) Mammals
b) Birds
c) Reptiles
d) Fish
e) Amphibians

Mammals
Mammals are animals which have mammary gland. The mammary gland are
found in the breast or udder which is used to produce milk to feed their
young ones. All mammals are warm blooded vertebrates and their skins are
covered with hair or fur.

Characteristics of mammals
- They have mammary glands.
- They have well developed ear lobes to trap sound waves.
- They have fur on their bodies.
- They breathe through the lungs.
- They have four chambered hearts.\most mammals give birth to
their young ones alive except the egg laying mammals
- They have back bones.
- All mammals are warm blooded.
- They feed their young ones on breast milk produced by the
mammary glands.
Examples:

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 Classification of Animals

Activity

1. In a sentence explain the term mammal.

2. Give a reason why mammals are referred to as vertebrates.
3. List the different groups of mammals.
4. In one sentence give a reason why a kangaroo is regarded as a mammal.

Classification of mammals
Mammals are grouped into nine sub classes according to their features and
behavior.

Primates (most advanced mammals)

Primates are the most advanced subclass of mammals. They have a well
developed set of teeth (32). Primates have well developed brain. They have
five fingers and five toes on each foot. All primates are omnivores (feed on
both flesh and plants). Examples of primates include: man, gorilla,
chimpanzee, baboon, bush baby, monkey, ape, gibbon.

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 Classification of Animals

Egg – laying mammals (mono-tremes)

These are mammals which reproduce by means of laying eggs. They are also
called mammals because they feed their young ones on milk from mammary
glands. Examples of egg laying mammals include:
the duck billed platypus and the spiny anteater (echidna).

spiny anteater(echidna)

duck-billed platypus

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 Classification of Animals
Activity

1. What is meant by the term mono-tremes?

2. Give any two examples of mono-tremes.
3. State any two reasons why primates differ from other mammals.
4. Explain why mono-tremes are grouped under mammals.
5. In which way is the duck billed platypus similar to a spiny anteater?

Flying mammals (Chiroptera)

Bats are the only mammals that fly. They have fold skin attached to the fore
limbs which act as wings. Bats are nocturnal animals which means they are
more active during the night. Bats use echoes to locate their food at night
and dodge obstacles on flying.

Pouched mammals (marsupials)

These are mammals with pockets on their abdomen where mammary glands
are found. They are commonly found in Australia and South Africa.
Examples of pouched mammals include: Kangaroo, koala bear, wallabies,
opossums.

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 Classification of Animals
Note: The word marsupial means a pouch or a bag. A kangaroo can leap or
jump a great distance.

Activity
1. Apart from kangaroos give any two other example of pouched mammals.
2. Explain why Marsupials are called mammals.

Flesh eating mammals (carnivores)

These are sub groups of mammals with well developed canine teeth and feed
on flesh. Examples of carnivores are lion, dog , cat ,leopard,

Sea mammals ( cetacean )

These are mammals which commonly live in large water bodies like seas and
oceans. Examples of sea mammals are the whale, dolphins, porpoise, seals and
dugongs.

A whale is the largest mammal. A whale is over 30 metres long and over 150
tones in weight .The whale is not a fish. Look at the sea mammals below.

porpoise

whale

- Sea mammals have some features similar to that of fish.

- All sea mammals are vertebrates and are warm blooded.

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 Classification of Animals
Activity
1. In one sentence, explain the meaning of the word sea mammals.
2. List any three examples of sea mammals.
3. Write any two characteristics of sea mammals.
4. Name the largest mammal.

Insectivores
These are mammals that feed on insects. Most of them are nocturnal.
Examples of insectivores include the hedgehog, ant bear, porcupine and
shrew.

A hedge hog stops and hides its head and legs then rolls like a ball for
protection.

BIRDS
A bird is warm blooded vertebrate covered with feathers, two wings, two
legs and a beak.

Characteristics of birds
- They are warm blooded vertebrates.
- Their legs are covered with scale.
- Their bodies are covered with feathers.
- They reproduce by means of laying eggs which are fertilized internally.
- They breathe using lungs.
- They are stream lined body. (pointed at the front and the back)
- They have a four chambered heart.
- Birds use beaks for pecking food.
- Most have hollowed bones to reduce their body weight for easy flying.
- Birds care for their young ones.

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 Classification of Animals

A bird has spurs on the legs for protection/defence. Birds use feathers for
protection of the inner body parts from external damage. Feathers of birds
provide warmth to the body of the bird. Feathers help the bird to fly
especially those of the wings and tail.

Below are examples of birds.

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 Classification of Animals
Activity
1. Give any four characteristics of birds.
2. In one sentence, give the functions of the following parts of the bird.
a) feathers
b) beak
3. Draw and name the following parts of a hen.
I) Spur
ii) Wattle
iii) Eye
4. In one sentence, give two differences between a hen and a cock.
5. In four sentences, state the importance of birds to people.
6. State how birds can be dangerous in our environment.

REPTILES
Reptiles are animals which move by crawling. The word reptile comes from
“reptalia”, Italian word meaning crawlers. Reptiles commonly live in warm
countries.

Characteristics of reptiles
- All reptiles are cold blooded.
- Reptiles breathe through their lungs.
- They reproduce by means of laying eggs .
- Their bodies are covered with scales.
- They have three chambered heart.

Examples of reptiles
The main groups of reptiles include snakes, lizards, tortoises, alligators,
crocodiles.

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 Classification of Animals
A tortoise has hard shell which helps it to protect itself from enemies by
entering in it. A chameleon also protect itself by changing its colours
according to it environment

Activity
1. Name any three examples of reptiles.
2. State any two characteristics of reptiles
3. How do the following reptiles protect themselves.?
a) a tortoise
b) a chameleon

Amphibians
These are cold blooded vertebrates that live both on land and in water.
Amphibians spend their early life in water and later life on land.

Characteristics of amphibians
- They live both on land and in water.
- All amphibians are cold blooded animals.
- They reproduce by means of laying eggs fertilized externally.
- They have webbed feet for easy swimming in water.
- When on land they use lungs to breathe while in water they use
moist skin to breathe.

Examples of amphibians
These include toads, newts, frogs and salamander.

Toad salamander Frog

toad frog

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 Classification of Animals
Activity
1. Where do amphibians spend their first life?
2. Give two example of amphibians
3. State two characteristics of amphibians
4.How does a newt similar to the salamander?

Fish
Examples include Tilapia, Nile perch, herrings, Solomon fish, Shark, dog
fish, rays, skates.

Tilapia

dog fish

shark

Note: A fish will die shortly in case it is removed from water due to lack of
dissolved oxygen.

Characteristics of fish
- They reproduce by laying eggs.
- They use their fins for swimming in water.
- They are cold blooded vertebrates.
- They breathe through gills.
- Some have scales in their bodies

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 Classification of Animals

Functions of the parts

Scales
It covers the body of the fish.

Gill cover
To protect the gills from external damage. The gill cover is also called
operculum

Nostril
For smelling and tasting food.

Tail fin
For swimming forward or changing directions. It's also called the caudal fin.

Dorsal fin
For protection against enemies.

Pectoral and pelvic fins.

For slowing down or stopping or act as brakes during swimming.

Mouth
Is a passage of food and water with dissolved oxygen to the gills.

Lateral line
To detects sound waves in water or for hearing.

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 Classification of Animals
Activity
1. Identify any two characteristics of fish.

2. Give two examples of fish.

3. What name is given to the young fish?

4. How are the following parts important to a fish?

a) Nostril
b) Dorsal fin
c) Tail fin
d) Lateral line

Invertebrates
Invertebrates are animals with no back bone. There are different groups of
invertebrate among which includes arthropods, mollusce, worms and
myriapods.

Arthropods
These are the largest group of invertebrates. Arthropods are divided into
three sub groups:
- Insects
- Arachnids
- Crustacean

a) Insects
These are arthropods with three main body parts. They are the widest group
of invertebrates

Characteristics of insects
- They have six legs
- They have three body parts. (Head, thorax and abdomen).
- Insects breathe through spiracles.
- They have pair of antennae/feelers.
- Insects have an exo-skeleton.
- They have a pair of compound eye.

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 Classification of Animals
Examples of insects include housefly, tsetse fly, grasshopper, cockroach,
moth, bees, wasp, mosquitoes, beetle, butterfly, dragon fly and Praying
mantis

housefly butterfly bee

grasshopper preying mantis cockroach

Activity
In groups discuss other examples of insects.

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 Classification of Animals
Function of parts of an insect
Head: Has eyes, feelers and proboscis.

Antennae (feelers)
- Used for feeling
- Smelling and communication.
- Detecting enemies.

Compound eyes
Have many lenses and help in seeing a wider range.

Proboscis: For feeding.

Proboscis is the mouth of an insect

Thorax: Where wings and legs are attached.

Abdomen: Has spiracles and Ovipositor.

Sting: For stinging its enemy for protection.

Wings: For flying.

Ovipositor: For mating and laying eggs.

Activity
1. Draw an insect and name all the parts.
2. List down four characteristics of insects.
3. State the function of the following parts of an insect:
a). wings
b). spiracles

Arachnids
Arachnids have the following characteristics:
- They have no antennae.
- They have two main body parts (head and abdomen).
- They have eight legs.

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 Classification of Animals
Examples of arachnids: ticks, scorpions and spiders.

tick spider

scorpion
Reasons why spiders are not classified as insects.
- They have two main body parts instead of three
- Spiders have for pairs of jointed legs instead of three.
- Spiders use book lungs for breathing while insects use spiracles

Activity
1. What are arachnids?
2. List any two characteristics of arachnids.
3. Give two reasons why spiders are not classified as insects.

Crustacea
These are arthropods with hard crusty skins. They have two body division.
They have four antennas. They live in water bodies. They breathe through
gills and can also use their skins for breathing. Examples of crustaceans are
lobsters, crabs, cyclops, barnacles.

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 Classification of Animals

lobster crab

Molluscs
These are invertebrates which are soft bodied and usually protected by a
shell. They live in seas, fresh water bodies and some of them live on land.

Characteristics of molluscs
- They have soft bodies.
- They have tentacles for detecting sound and smell.
- Most of them have shell for protection.

Sea molluscs have gills for breathing while land molluscs use simple lungs.
Examples of molluscs include oyster, octopus, garden snail, water snail,
slugs, squids.
Snail Slug

Oyster Octopus

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 Classification of Animals
Activity

1. State what is meant by the term molluscs.

2. Write any three examples of molluscs.

3. State two ways in which some molluscs are dangerous to human health.

4. Draw and name parts of a garden snail.

Worms
These are long thin and soft bodied invertebrates. They use their moist skins
for breathing. They have hydrostatic type of skeleton.

Categories of worms
Worms are grouped into three major groups namely:
a) Segmented worm (annelids)
b) Round worms (nematodes)
c) Flat worms
Segmented worm
These are worms with segmented bodied or rings. they mostly live in most
places.

Examples of segmented worms include earthworms, bristle worm and leech

as shown below.

earthworm bristle worm leech

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 Classification of Animals
Activity
1. What are segmented worms?
2. Give two examples of segmented worms.
3. Identify any other two groups of worms apart from segmented worms.

Flatworms
These are worms with flat bodies. Examples of flat worms are tape worm
and liver flukes. Tape worms live in the small intestines in animals and feed
on the digested food.

tape worm liver fluke

Activity
1. List two examples of flat worms
2. How do tape worms enter into our bodies
3. Draw and name parts of a tape worm (segment, Suckers, hooks).

Round worms
Examples of round worms include hook worms, askaris, thread worms.

askaris

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 Classification of Animals

Myriapods
Myriapods are arthropods with many jointed legs. They have exo-skeleton.
Their bodies are made of segments. Examples of myriapods include
millipedes and centipedes.

millipede centipede

A centipede has poison glands which produce poison used to inject in its
prey and for protection.

A millipede is a herbivore and makes holes in soil hence helping in soil

aeration.
A millipede protects itself from enemies by curving up into a ball like
structure/by coiling. Some small millipedes produce a smelly fluid for
protection.
They also roll on their backs when disturbed to scare their enemies.
ANIMALS MODE OF LIFE

Classification of animals according to their mode of life

Animals different modes/ways of lives among which include:
a) Mode of feeding
b) Mode of breathing/respiration
c) Mode of reproduction
d) Mode of movement/locomotion

Mode of respiration/breathing in animals

Respiration is the process by which the body uses food and oxygen to
release heat and energy.
Respiration takes place in the body cells.
Not all animals breathe in the same way.
They use different ways and they use different organs for breathing.

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 Classification of Animals
The organs used are:
Ÿ The lungs
Ÿ The skin
Ÿ The gills
Ÿ The skin and lungs
Ÿ The spiracles

1. Respiration through lungs

These are animals which breathe by using their lungs
The air they breathe enter through the nostril, trachea, bronchus, lungs and
finally to the air sacs where gaseous exchange take place.

Animal that respirate through lungs include:

a) Mammals: goats, man, whale, cow, bat, monkey.
b) Birds: hen, dove pigeon, eagle.
c) Reptiles: crocodiles, tortoise, snakes, chameleon, lizards.

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 Classification of Animals
Respiration through skin
There are animals which have no lungs. Such animals use their soft and moist
skin for breathing. Most of these animals live in the soil and they breathe in the
air in the soil.

earthworm leech

Respiration by gills
Animals that breathe by their gills mainly live in water.
They breathe in dissolved oxygen using gills.
Dissolved oxygen in water is allowed to enter through the mouth cavity and
trapped by the gill filament. Gill rakes help to trap any foreign body that enters
with water to avoid damaging the filaments. Gaseous exchange takes place in
the gill filament.

A fish will die shortly in case it is removed from water due to lack of dissolved
oxygen. Tadpoles also use gills for breathing.

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 Classification of Animals
Activity
1. State how a fish breathe
2. In the space below, draw a structure of a gill and name the
following parts:
i) gill raker
ii) gill filament
3. What do tadpoles use for breathing?

Respiration through lungs and skin

Animals that breathes through lungs and skin live both in water an on land. A
frog breathes through its moist skin and mouth cavity in water and lungs for
breathing on land. Examples are amphibians like frogs , toad, newt and
salamanders. Look at the frog on the next page.

Respiration through spiracles

These are mainly invertebrates that uses their spiracles to breathe.
Spiracles are breathing holes found on the sides of the abdomen of insect

Activities
1. What is respiration?
2. Name one animal that uses both skin and lungs for breathing.
3. In which part of the insect do we find the spiracles?
4. Of what used are spiracles to insects.

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 Classification of Animals
Feeding habits in animals
Animals are classified into six different groups according to their mode of
feeding .These groups depend on what those animals mainly eat.

1. Carnivores
These are animals which feed on meat or flesh. They have well develop
canine teeth for tearing flesh of their spray. They also have sharp claws for
holding, killing and tearing flesh of the prey. They have good speed, a very
good sense of smell, good hearing and keen sight. This make them even to
hunt at night. A pray is an animal hunted and killed by the carnivores.
Examples of carnivorous animals are dogs, lion, cat, cheetah, leopard, wolf,
fox.

Canine
teeth

teeth of a carnivore

2. Herbivores
Herbivores are animals which feed on plants or vegetables. They eat grass,
leaves and soft stems of plants. Examples of herbivores include cows, goats,
sheep, antelopes, giraffe, and zebras.

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 Classification of Animals

3. Omnivores
These are animals which feed on both meat and vegetables.
They have well developed four set of teeth ; incisors, canines, pre molars
and molar.
Examples of omnivores are pigs and human beings.

man pig

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 Classification of Animals
4. Grain eaters
This are animals feed on grains. Example of grains are millet, maize, rice,
sorghum, and wheat. Most of the birds are grain eaters like chicken, turkey,
weaver bird, pigeon and guinea foal.

Functions of different parts of the alimentary canal of bird

Beak/bill: Is used to pick food.
: it is also used to break food into smaller piece.

Gullet (oesophagus): Is used to carry food from the break to the crop.

Crop: Softens/moistens food before it is passed onto the stomach.

Stomach: Secretes digestive enzymes that mix with food.

Gizzard: Contains small stones (grit) that grind food into small particles.

Small intestine: Final digestion takes place. Where absorption occurs.

Colon (large intestines): Absorption of water takes place.

Caeca: Stores undigested foods remain temporarily

Vent: allows wastes (chicken droppings) out of the body of a bird.

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 Classification of Animals
Activities
1. What are grain eaters?
2. Give two examples of grain eaters.
3. How is a beak important to a bird?
4. Draw the digestive system of a bird and name its parts

5. Insectivores.
These are animals which feed on insects.
Some have long sticky tongue which they use to trap insects and also strong
claws for digging the soil.
Examples of insectivores include: amphibians like frogs, toad and newts.
Most reptiles like chameleon, lizards, snakes, and some mammals like moles,
hedgehog, ant bear and some bats.

6. Rodents
Rodents are animals which feed on roots, back of trees and vegetables
Rodents have the following characteristics:
- They have well developed incisor teeth for biting and chewing rapidly.
- They don't have canine teeth.
- They have sharp strong claws for digging up root crops like cassava

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 Classification of Animals
Animals mode of reproduction
Reproduction is the process by which living things increase in number by
giving birth to the young ones.

Animals have three different ways of reproduction

1. By giving birth to young ones ( Viviparous)
2. By laying egg ( Oviparous)
3. Eggs hutches inside them and give birth to young ones (Ovoviviparous)

Viviparous
These are animals which reproduce by giving birth to their young one alive.
They feed their young ones on milk from the breast or udder after giving
birth.
They are mainly mammals like cows, human beings, dogs.

All mammals above give birth to their young one except mono-tremes (egg
laying mammals) like duck billed platypus and spiny ant eater.

2. Egg laying animals (Oviparous)

These are animals which produce by laying eggs. Most of them care for their
eggs and give them good condition necessary for hatching but others does
not. Oviparous are mainly:
a) Birds
b) Fish
c) Amphibians
d) Most reptiles
e) Insects

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 Classification of Animals

Amphibians
Amphibians reproduce by laying eggs. They lay their eggs in water. The male
mates with the female one. As the female lays eggs, the male releases the
sperms over those eggs. Their eggs are fertilized outside the body.

After laying the eggs, they do not care for their eggs. The eggs are protected
by jelly which covers and make it difficult for fish or birds to eat them. The
eggs then hatch into tadpoles after two weeks. The tadpoles look like fish
It takes three months for the tadpole to grow to adult frog.

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 Classification of Animals

Reptiles
Reptiles reproduce by laying eggs.
They dig and lay their eggs in the soil
After laying their eggs, they cover it with soil and then leave the eggs to
hatch on their own.

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 Classification of Animals
Birds
Birds reproduce by laying eggs. The male mates with a female. After mating,
the male and the female build a nest for their eggs. Birds look after their eggs
until they hatch into young ones. The caring of eggs by birds to hatch them is
called incubation.

Fish
Fish reproduce by laying eggs. Female fish lay eggs in shallow water where the
male spread sperm over them. Fish undergo external fertilization. They lay
many eggs but only a few hatch and develop into adults. Most fish do not
take care of their young one except the tilapia fish.
A young one of a fish is called a fry.

Ovoviviparous
These are animals whose eggs are fertilized and retain in the female
reproductive tube and later give birth to young ones. The hatching and
development of the embryo takes place inside the reproductive tube then the
young one comes out already formed.
Example of ovoviviparous are vipers and tsetse fly.

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 Classification of Animals
N/B. Vipers are the most dangerous poisonous snake with poison fangs
situated near the front of their mouth.

Reproduction in insects
Insects reproduce by laying eggs. The stages of development of an insects
is called life cycle or metamorphosis. There are mainly two type of life cycle
of an insect:
a) Complete life cycle
b) Incomplete life cycle.

Complete life cycle

This involves four stages of growth.
These include eggs larva pupa adult.

A complete life cycle of a housefly.

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 Classification of Animals
Examples of insects that undergo complete life cycles are houseflies,
mosquitoes, bees, wasps, butterflies, moth.

Incomplete life cycle

This is type of life cycle in which insects undergo three stages of
development. The stages involves are eggs, nymph and adult

Incomplete life cycle of a cockroach

Examples of insects which undergo incomplete metamorphosis,

cockroaches, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, termites and white ant.

Activity
1. State three insects which undergo incomplete life cycle.
2. What do we call the second stage of a cockroach?
3. Complete the life cycle of a cockroach below.

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 Classification of Animals
Mode of movement/ locomotion in animals

Animals move from one place to another because of different reasons:

- To look for food and water.
- To run away from danger.
- To search for mates.
- Bad weather changes.
- To look for better shelter.
- To search for their young ones when lost.

Different animals move in different ways

a) Mammals
Mammals move by walking either by two legs or four legs. Bats are the only
flying mammals. Some mammals like the whale and seals move by
swimming.

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 Classification of Animals
b) Birds
Birds move by flying. Birds are able to fly because;
- They have wings.
- Most have hollowed bones to reduce their body weight for easy flying.
- They have a stream lined body.
- Their bodies are covered with feathers.
Examples are dove, duck, parrots, goose, eagle, an owl, dove weaver bird,
kite and sun bird.
dove kite eagle

However, some birds are not able to fly because:

- They are too heavy.
- They have poorly developed wings.

Birds which are not able to fly are called flightless birds. They can run very
fast or swim. Examples are kiwi, ostrich, emu, penguin and cassowary.

Weak and small wings compared to the body size.

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 Classification of Animals
c) Amphibians
Amphibians move by hopping. Their hind legs are long and powerful which
helps them to hop a long distance. Examples of amphibians are frogs, toad,
newt and salamander.

d) Reptiles
Reptiles move by crawling. Reptiles have very short legs and others have no
legs making them move by crawling on the ground. Examples of reptiles are
lizards, chameleon, snakes, crocodile and tortoise.

Fish
Fish move by swimming. They use their fins for swimming in water. They
are cold blooded vertebrates and breathe in dissolved oxygen in water using
gills.
A young fish is called a fry.

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 Classification of Animals
Revision exercise

1. Name the two main groups of animals.

2. State any four characteristics of living.
3 How do the following animals move?
a) Cow
b) Crocodile
c) Eagle
d) Tilapia
e) Toad
4. To which class of animals do tape worm belong?
5. Below is a diagram of a fish. Use it to answer the questions that follow:

a). Name part A B ,C, D, E and F

b). State the functions of parts marked F, A and E
c). How is part C important to a fish?
6. Give three characteristics of mammals
6. Give three characteristics of mammals.
7. What are vertebrates?
8. Name one example of egg laying mammals.
9. What do omnivores feed on?
10. Give two examples of omnivorous animals.
11. Name the stages in the life cycle of a house fly below.

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 Animals Management
CHAPTER PRIMARY

10 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 12

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required Rabbits, rabbit hutch, hay, good high fibre pellet, fresh
vegetables and clean water.

Activities Ÿ Field visits of different rabbit farms, make

observations and group discussions aiming to outline
the conditions of a good rabbit hutch;
Ÿ Group discussion regarding characteristics of good
male and good female rabbit to cross;
Ÿ Group discussion the practice of good feeding and
hygiene for rabbits;
Ÿ Collecting hay, good high fiber pellet, fresh vegetables
and clean water to feed rabbits;
Ÿ Research using library books/search engines, then
group discussion on common diseases of rabbits
Ÿ Making group discussion on the importance of rabbit
farming.
Ÿ At school (especially rural schools), learners implement
a small scale cuniculture project. They will feed them,
clean the hutch and diagnose for possible diseases.

Competencies practices To be able to explain and practice the rabbit keeping

Language practice Discussion in groups

Study skills Ÿ Distinguish male from female rabbit

Ÿ Do right choice of rabbits to rear
Ÿ Design a small scale rabbit keeping project
Ÿ Apply basic techniques of cuniculture (rabbit farming).

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Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Manage the rabbit farm properly

Learning outcomes Identify the conditions of a good rabbit hutch

Explain the criteria for choosing a rabbit to rear

Explain the proper feeding of rabbits

Identify the most common diseases of rabbits and their

prevention

Point–out the importance of practicing rabbit farming

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CHAPTER PRIMARY

10 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
4
Animal management is the practice of keeping domestic animals on the
farm.
Farmers keep different domestic animal on the farm.
Look at the animals below.

Activity

1. Name the animals you can see in the picture above.

2. In groups discuss the following questions.
a) Name other farm animals which are not in the pictures.
b) Why do farmers keep farm animals?
d) if you were a farmer which farm animal would you choose to keep
e) Give a reason why you would choose that animal

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Rabbit keeping
A rabbit is one of the domestic animals reared on farms for economic
purpose. Common terms used in rabbit keeping include:
Doe: Female rabbit.
Buck: Male rabbit.
Litter: Group of young rabbits.
Bunny: A young rabbit.
Hutch: House of domestic rabbits.
Burrow: Habitat of wild rabbits.
Kindling: Giving birth to young rabbits by a doe.
Weaning: Stopping of young rabbits from suckling their mothers.
A breed: A group of rabbit sharing the same characteristics.

External parts of a rabbit

Activity
1. Visit any nearby farm.
2. Take a look at a doe and a buck.
3. Identify some difference between the doe and a buck.
4. Draw and name external parts of a doe in the picture.

Choice of rabbit to rare

The choice of rabbit to rear depends on the breeds of rabbits.

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Breeds of rabbits
A breed of animals is a group of animals sharing the same characteristics.
The two breeds of rabbit are local breed and exotic breeds.

Exotic breeds
These are rabbits brought from other countries because of their good
qualities. Examples of exotic breeds of rabbits are:
a) New Zealand white
b) Chinchilla
c) Angora
d) Californian
e) Ear lop
f) Rex

Difference between local and exotic breeds of rabbits.

Local breeds Exotic breeds

- More resistant to diseases. - Less resistant to diseases.
- Small in size. - Big in size.
- Grow slowly. - Grow faster.
- Have different colour. - Have similar colours.

Characteristics of exotic breeds

Chinchilla rabbit Angora rabbit
- It has good fur. -It is white in colour.
- It is kept for meat. - it has fine fur.
- It is grey in colour. - It is kept for meat.
- It also provides.
good skin.

California rabbits New Zealand white

- They are white in colour. - It has short legs.
- They have a black - Its body is white
nose and ears. all over.
- They are kept - It has pink eyes.
for meat. - It grows very fast.

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Earlap
- It is kept for meat.
- It is bigger than all other breeds.
- Its ears drop at the sides of the head.

Characteristics of local breeds

- Most of them live in the bush.
- They are more resistant to diseases.
- They are strong and run faster.
- Local breeds are also called indigenous
breeds.

Activity

1.In groups discuss the following questions

a). What is a breed of rabbit
b). Name the two breeds of rabbits.
c). Give three difference between local and exotic breeds of rabbits
d) Which breeds of rabbit would you choose to keep?
e). Why would you choose that breed?

Rabbit feeds
Rabbits feed on different food like:
- Sweet potato leaves.
- Banana peelings.
- Green vegetables or dodo
- Carrots.
- Small blocks of salt in water.
- Pellets (manufactured animal feeds).

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Housing of rabbits
A house of rabbits is called a hutch.

Characteristic of a good hutch

i) It should be strong enough to protect rabbits.
ii) It should not have a leaking roof.
iii) It should have enough ventilation or air apace
iv) It should be kept clean and dry.

a caged hutch a mortant hutch

How to care for rabbits

a) Provide good housing.
b) Proper feeding of rabbits.
c) Early treatment of sick rabbits.
d) Vaccinating rabbits.
e) Separate sick ones from the normal ones.

Reproduction in rabbits
A male rabbit mates with a female. The doe then becomes pregnant. It takes
one month for the doe to produce it young ones. When the pregnant doe is
about to produce, it uses its fur to prepare a soft bed for it young ones.
After producing the young ones, it feeds them on breast milk. A young
rabbit is called a bunny. A group of young rabbit born by one mother is
called a litter

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Rabbit diseases
a) Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis affects the liver and intestines of rabbits.

Signs of coccidiosis
- A swollen stomach
- Rough fur
- Diarrhoea
- Loss of weight
- Dies suddenly

b) Snuffles
It attacks rabbits of any age.
- Rabbits start sneezing at late hours.
- They discharge mucus from the nose.
- Rabbits with snuffles suddenly die.

c) Ear scabies (mange)

It affects the ears of rabbits. It attacks rabbits of any age.

Signs of ear scabies

- Rabbits feel itching ears and later wounds develop in the ears.
- The ears of rabbits will be bent downwards.

d) Pneumonia
It affects the lungs. Rabbits get pneumonia when the environment they live
in is wet and cold.

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Signs of pneumonia
- A rabbit with pneumonia shivers.
- Rabbits have difficulty in breathing.
- A rabbit does not eat
- Rabbits develop high body temperature

e) Colds
- Rabbits with a cold always sneezes
- Rabbits also develop a running nose.

f) Weepy eyes
Rabbits with weepy eyes have tears or watery substances coming out of their
eyes all the time.

Prevention and control of rabbit diseases

a)Proper feeding of rabbits.
b) Keep the hutches clean and dry.
c) Avoid keeping many rabbits in a hutch.
d) Vaccinate the rabbits.
e) the hutch should have enough air space.
f) Put drugs in food and water for the rabbits.
g) Give rabbits clean feeds.

Activity
In a group, discuss other ways of preventing rabbit diseases.

Records kept in rabbit farming

a) Number of young ones produced by each doe.
b) Production records in terms of meat in kilograms.
c) Dates of kindling by the doe.
d) Profits and losses made after selling.
e) Vaccination records.
f) Types of feeds given to rabbits

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 Animals Management
Importance of rabbit farming
There are many reasons why farmers keep rabbits in the farm among which
includes:
a) For meat.
b) They are sold to get money.
c) Their skins are use for making handbags and shoes.
d) Their dropping can be used as manure.
e) Their fur is used for making clothes.

Revision exercise

1. Give two reasons why farmers keep rabbits.

2. List down any four rabbit diseases.

3. Why should farmers keep the hutch clean an dry?

4. State any one type of rabbit.

5. Write down any three examples of exotic breeds of rabbits.

6. Name the rabbit disease which affects domestic birds.

7. How can you control the spread of rabbit diseases in your farm?

8. Mention any two ways of caring for domestic rabbits.

9. Briefly explain the following terms as used in rabbit keeping.

a) litter
b) buck
c) doe

10. How can you differentiate local rabbits from exotic rabbits?

11. Give any two rabbit feeds.

12. List down any two records kept in rabbit farm.

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 Plant Life
CHAPTER PRIMARY

11 PLANT LIFE
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 14

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required Seeds of maize and beans, transparent plastic pots, water,
refrigerator

Activities Ÿ Observation: Take learners out of the classroom and

guide them in observing a variety of plants and record
information
Ÿ Group discussion and report on the conditions of
germination
Ÿ Project: In the classroom corner carry out an
investigation on the germination of beans and maize
seeds:
Ÿ Prepare and label transparent plastic pots as follow:
Ÿ Pot No1: empty pot
Ÿ Pot No2: poor a very small amount of water
Ÿ Pot No3: poor water in about ½ of the pot
Ÿ Pot No4: put slightly wet soil in the pot
Ÿ Pot No5: put slightly wet washed sand in the
pot (small particles)
Ÿ Note: prepare in duplicate of each type of pot
Ÿ
Ÿ Place the first pot in a warm place and the second pot
in a cold place (refrigerator)
Ÿ
Ÿ In each of the 10 pots, put two seeds of beans and two
seeds of maize
Ÿ Leave for two weeks, but check every two days and
record what you find
Ÿ Keep the soil moist by watering it every day.

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 Plant Life
Activities Ÿ Record your observations as the seeds germinate and
seedlings begin to sprout from the seeds.
Ÿ Visit the school surrounding to observe, name different
parts of plant and discuss their functions
Ÿ Plant a variety of seeds and maintain new plants in the
school garden to protect its environment.

Competencies practices To be able to demonstrate stages of germination and

establish the relationship between parts of plants and their
function.

Language practice Discussion in groups

Study skills Ÿ Select good seeds.

Ÿ Design a setting enabling the germination of some
samples of seeds.
Ÿ Draw and label a sample of a plant.
Ÿ Plant some samples of seeds in the school garden and
ensure the follow up.

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments application of germination protocol, presentation of

output from group discussion.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Explain the process of germination

Ÿ Identify types of germination.
Ÿ Explain stages of germination
Ÿ Label different parts of the plant
Ÿ Explain the functions of each parts of the plant

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CHAPTER PRIMARY

11 PLANT LIFE
4
PLANTS
Plants are living things like animals. They breathe, feed, re produce and
grow.
Plants in the environment are divided into two main groups .Flowering
plants and non flowering plants.
In this class we shall mainly learn about flowering plants. Flowering plants
are plants which bear flowers and reproduce by using seeds.

Seeds
A seed is a mature fertilized ovule. A seed develops into a young plant or a
seedling under favorable conditions. Seeds are classified into two:
a) Monocotyledonous seeds
b) Dicotyledonous seeds

Monocotyledonous seeds
These are seeds with only one cotyledon. They are mainly grains. Examples
include; maize, millet, sorghum, rice and wheat. Monocotyledonous seeds
undergo hypogeal germination.

Functions of the above parts.

a) Seed coat (testa)

It protects the inner parts of the seed.

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 Plant Life
b) Cotyledon
Stores food in the dicotyledonous seed. Absorbs stored food from the
endosperm to the embryo during germination.

c) Endosperm
Stores food in monocotyledonous seeds.
d) Plumule
It grows into shoot system.

e) Radicle
Grows into the root system.

f) Micropyle
Is a passage of air and water to the embryo.

Activity.
1 .Get a maize grain
2. Get warm water in a container
3. Put the maize
in the warm water and leave it for about two hours
4 Remove the testa and see the internal parts.
5. How many cotyledon does it have?
6. Draw and name the following parts of a maize seed.
a). Micropyle
b). Cotyledon
c). Testa
7. State the functions of the following parts of a maize grain.
i. Endosperm
ii Cotyledon
8. Name other seed which have only one cotyledon.

Dicotyledonous seeds
These are seeds with two cotyledons. These seeds can be split into two equal
parts of the cotyledons.
Examples include bean seed, Peas, Groundnut, and soya beans. All
dicotyledonous seeds undergo epigeal germination.
External and internal parts of a bean seed.

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Functions of each part:

a) Cotyledons: store food for the embryo.

b) Testa/seed coat: protects the inside parts of a seed.

c) Radicle: develops into the root system.

d) Plumule: develops into the shoot system.

e) Embryo: grows into a new plant.

f) Scar/ hilum: it is where the seed is attached to the pod.

Exercise
1. Name the parts of a bean seed drawn below

2. Of what importance is a cotyledon to a bean seed during germination?

3. Which part of a bean seed develops into roots?
4. Write any one difference between monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous
seeds

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 Plant Life

GERMINATION IN PLANTS
Germination is the growing of a seed into seedling. A seedling is a young
plant.

Seed germination:
Ÿ It is the growing of a seed into a seedling.
Ÿ A seedling is a young plant.

Conditions for germination

a) water/moisture
b) oxygen
c) warmth (optimum temperature)

Uses of each condition during germination

a) Water/moisture
It dissolves the food in the cotyledons or endosperm for the growing
embryo
It softens the testa to ease germination.

b) Warmth
It provides good temperature for germination to take place.

c) Oxygen
Used by the growing embryo to burn food and produce energy.

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 Plant Life
The process of germination
- Water enters the seed through the micropyle.
- The testa softens swells and allows the radical to pass through.
- The cotyledon can either remain in the ground or come out of the ground
according to the type of germination.
Activity
1. Define germination.

2. Identify the conditions necessary for germination.

3. Of what importance is moisture to a seed during germination?

Project work on seed germination

Get four containers, seeds and carry out the followingb) a seed put in a
container with warmth and oxygen but no water.
What is your observation? (No germination)
Put:
A B
a seed put in a container with a seed put in a container with
water, no warmth and oxygen warmth and oxygen but no water

What is your observation? What is your observation?

(No germination) (No germination)
C D
a seed put in a container with a seed put in a container with
water and oxygen but no warmth warmth, water and oxygen.

What is your observation? What is your observation?

(No germination) (There is germination.)

Types of germination
There are basically two types of germination:
a) Epigeal germination
b) Hypogeal germination

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 Plant Life
Epigeal germination
In this type of germination where the cotyledon comes out of the soil.
Plants with epigeal germination: Bean plant, Soya plant, Pea plant,
Groundnut plant

]
Hypogeal germination
In this type of germination, the cotyledon remains under the ground. This
type of germination is a common characteristic of monocotyledonous
seeds.
Examples include; maize, millet, rice, sorghum and wheat.

Stages involved in Hypogeal germination.

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 Plant Life
Activity
1. State what you understand by germination of seeds.
2. Give any two conditions necessary for seed germination.
3. Using diagrams, show the different stages of a germinating bean seed
4. List any two examples of a monocotyledonous seeds.

Types of plants
There are mainly four types of plants.

Trees
Trees are plants which have hard stem . They take many years to mature.

They mainly have single woody stem, branches and leaves

Example of trees are pines, eucalyptus, mango, avocado, and orange tree.
Look at the trees below

Plants with epigeal germination: Bean plant, Soya plant, Pea plant,
Groundnut plant

Activity
With your friend discuss other examples of trees

Shrubs
These are wood plants smaller than trees. They have stems branching from
near the ground. Examples of shrubs are tea, rose flower , cassava, coffee
and pyrethrum

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Herbs
These are plants with soft and weak stems. They do not develop a woody
stem and usually dry after producing fruits. Herbs are the main source of
local medicine.

Grass
This are plant with small joined stems and produce fruits inform of grains.
Examples of plants found in grass categories are millet, sugar cane, maize,
wheat, elephant grass, and rice spear grass and lemon grass.

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 Plant Life
Plants growing in different types of soils
- Most plants grow well in loam soil.
- Loam soil is very fertile.
- Some plants grow well in sand soils while others do well in swamps on top
of clay soil, with plenty of humus e.g. yams, sugar cane, rice and sugar cane.

Uses of plants to people

- Most plants are used for food.
- We get medicine from some plants.
- Flowers and leaves are sold to get money.
- Flowers and leaves are also used for decoration.
- Trees provide us with timber as building materials and making furniture
- Plants give us oxygen which we need for breathing.
- Trees work as wind breaks reducing the strength of wind.

Activity
1. Name any three types of plants
2. Which type of plant is mainly grown for wood production?
3. How are plants useful to people?
4. Give four examples of plants people eat.

Parts of a flowering plant and their uses:

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 Plant Life
Activity
Draw a flowering plant and name these parts.
Stem, flower, bud, fruit and leaves.

Roots
Examples of different types of roots:
a) tap roots
b) fibrous roots
c) prop roots
d) adventitious roots
tap root fibrous roots prop roots adventitious
roots

A PRACTICAL LESSON ABOUT ROOTS.

Take a walk round the school garden or compound
Up root some plants and look at their root system
Record the type of root they have.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTS TYPE OF ROOTS

Beans Tap root

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Uses of roots to plants
1. They store food for the plant like cassava, sweet potatoes
2. They hold plants firmly in the ground.
3. They absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
4. They transport food to rest of the plants.
5. Some plants have roots that fix nitrogen in the soil.

Stems
Uses of stems to a plant
1. They hold the branches, leaves and flowers upright to get sunlight
2. They transport water from the roots to the leaves
3. They also transport food made in the leaves to the roots
4. Green stems make food for plants.
5. Some stems store food for the plant e.g sugarcane

Types of stems
1. Creeping stems or climbing stems
2. Upright stems
3. Underground stems
4. Storage stems(stem tubers)
5. Rhizome

Upright stem ( erect stem ) Creeping stems

Examples are mango stem, Examples are sweet potatoes and
orange stem, maize stem pumpkin

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 Plant Life
Activity
1. Take a walk around school compound.
2. Pick leaves from different plants.
3. Group them into simple and compound leaves.
4. Draw those leaves in your books.
5. Give one example of crop that has a simple leaves.

Parts of a leaf

Function of parts of a leaf

a) Veins
They transport food and water in a leaf

b) Stomata:
This is small holes found in the leaf used for breathing and transpiration.

c) Leaf blade
The point at which the leaf stalk is attached to the plant.

d) Leaf margin works as a boundary for a leaf.

e) Leaf stalk attaches leaves to the stem.

f) Apex. This is the tip of the leaf.

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Leaves:
There are two types of leaves:
1. Simple leaves
2. Compound leaves

Simple leaves
A simple leaf has one leaflet on one leaf stalk.
simple entire simple serrated

simple lobed simple palmate

Compound leaves
A compound leaf has many leaflets on one leaf stalk. Example of
compound leaves include:
a) Compound pinnate
b) Compound bi-pinnate
c) Compound trifoliate

compound pinnate compound bi-pinnate compound trifoliate

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 Plant Life
Uses of a leaf to a plant
- Used for breathing by plants.
- Gives water into the air (transpiration).
- Makes food for the plant (photosynthesis).
- Some leaves are used for reproduction like bryophyllum.
- Some leaves stores food for plants like onion and cabbages.

Activity
1. Which part of a leaf has the same function as the spiracles of an insect?
2. State the uses of leaves to:
a) People
b) plants
3. Mention two examples of crops whose leaves are eaten by people.
4. Draw a plant and name all the parts.

How do plants get their food?

Most plants get food by the process of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make their own food.
The type of food green plants make is called starch.

Things plants need to make food:

a) Sunlight c) Water
b)Carbon dioxide d) Chlorophyll

Importance of each of the conditions during photosynthesis

Chlorophyll:
This is the green matter found in leaves. It traps sun light energy.

Sunlight:
Splits water into hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbon dioxide and water

Carbon dioxide mixes with water to form starch.

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At night photosynthesis cannot occur due to absence of sunlight energy.

Oxygen is given off during photosynthesis.

Plants make their own food only during day time in the presence of sunlight.

Activity
1. Name the process by which green plants make their own food.
2. Identify two raw materials needed for photosynthesis to take place.
3. Which gas is given off during photosynthesis?
4. Why are plants unable to make food at night?

Flower
It is the reproductive part of the plant.
Parts of a flower

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 Plant Life
a) Petals
Attracts pollinators like insects and birds. The collective name for petals is
corolla.

b) Stigma
Receives pollen grains from the anthers.

c) Anthers
Produce pollen grains.

d) Filament
Holds the anthers upright.

e) Ovary
Protects the ovules and it grows into a fruit after fertilization.

f) Ovules
Develop into seeds after fertilization.

g) Sepals: they protect young flower.

h) Flower stalk: holds the flower upright.

I) Flower base: is the point at which the flower stalk is attached to the
plant.

The female part of a flower is called the pistil and it has the following parts:
stigma, style, ovules and the ovary while the male part is made up of the
anthers and filament and is called the stamen.

Activity
1. How do we call the female part of a flower?
2. Which part of the flower grows into a fruit after fertilization?
3. Why are petals of flowers brightly coloured?
4. With your friend discuss how flowers are useful.
5. Draw a flower in your book and name its part

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Fruits
A fruit is a mature ovary. A fruit is any structure in flowering plants that
contains mature fertilized ovules. It has two scars:
a) style scar
b) stalk scar

Fruits are divided into two:

a) Juicy fruits (succulent fruits)
b) Non-juicy fruit (dry fruits)

The main function of the fruit is to protect the seed. Examples of fruit
crops
Oranges, mangoes, pears, lemons, pawpaws, bananas, grapes.

Dangers of some plants to people:

Some plants are poisonous when eaten. Other plants have thorns.

sisal plant cactus plant

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Revision Exercise

1. What is germination?

2. Give two types of germination.

3. Name any two conditions necessary for seed germination.

4. How do we call a young plant?

5. What are dicotyledonous seeds?

6. Give three examples of dicotyledonous seeds.

7. Name the four types of plants we have in the environment.

8. Which part of a seed develops into root system.

9. List any four uses of plants to people.

10. Give one function of each of the following parts of a plant:

a) leaves
b) stems
c) roots
d) fruits

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PRIMARY
CHAPTER
HUMAN BODY, HYGIENE AND
12 FIRST AID 4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 25

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required lens, wall charts, objects to produce sound or to taste

Activities Ÿ Group research on the functional mechanism of all

sensory organs from library or search engines
Ÿ Using a lens, observe different types of the skin (in the
palm of the hand, the skin on arms or on the head)
Ÿ On wall charts, observe the inner parts of the skin
Group discussion:
Ÿ Discuss the functions and properties of the skin
Ÿ Discuss and implement the rules of skin hygiene.
Ÿ Group discussion on common skin diseases
Ÿ Role play simulating the first aid intervention in case of
skin accident
Ÿ Observation: Learners observe on the wall chart and
name different zones of the tongue then draw in their
exercises book
Ÿ Practical work: Taste different food samples to locate
the different parts of the tongue
Ÿ Group discussion: In small group discuss the functions
of the tongue
Ÿ Practical: Each individual pupil use a brush to clean the
tongue
Ÿ Group discuss on common tongue disorders and
accidents
Ÿ Observation: Learners observe on the wall chart and
name different parts of the nose then draw in their
exercises book
Ÿ Practical work: Smell different samples of various
substances to identify the substance by its smell.

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Activities Ÿ Group discuss on common nose disorders and
accidents
Ÿ Discussion: In small groups discuss about the most
common nose diseases and their causes
Ÿ Practical: Each individual pupil clean the nose by
removing mucus in excess or other particles in the
nostril & nasal cavity
Ÿ Role play simulating the first aid intervention in case of
nose accident
Ÿ Observation: Learners observe on the wall chart and
name different parts of the ear then draw in their
exercises book
Ÿ Discussion: In small groups discuss about the hygiene
of the ears
Ÿ Practical work: Collect suitable materials (warm water,
wet washing cloth) and each individual pupil clean the
ears.
Ÿ Discussion: In small groups discuss about the most
common ears' diseases and their causes
Ÿ Observation: Under teacher's guidance, learners
observe on the wall chart and name different parts of
the eye then draw the same in their exercises book
Ÿ Discussion: In small groups use the picture (diagram/
drawing) and refer to their own eyes to discuss the
functioning of the eye, then share with the whole class.
Ÿ Investigation: In small group learners investigate the
conditions which ease or harden the sight (seeing
things)
Ÿ Demonstration: Learners to visualize things through
different types of lens to understand how lens can be
used as ways of correcting eye defects
Ÿ Research: As a kind of homework, learners search for
information from various sources (parents, peers,
nearest health facilities, printed materials, electronic
sources,) about the prevention of eye defects and later
share information with peers in classroom.

Competencies practices To be able to explain the structure, function and

maintenance of the human sensory organs

Language practice Discussion in groups

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 Human body, Hygiene and First AID
Study skills Ÿ Draw and label the structure of the skin
Ÿ Apply principles of hygiene of the skin
Ÿ Intervene efficiently in case of skin accident
Ÿ Draw and label the tongue
Ÿ Apply techniques of cleaning the tongue
Ÿ Draw and label the different part of the nose
Ÿ Develop smelling skills
Ÿ Apply accurately various techniques of maintaining
hygiene of the noise
Ÿ Intervene adequately in case of nose accident
Ÿ Draw and label the different part of the ear
Ÿ Apply accurately various techniques of maintaining
hygiene of the ear
Ÿ Draw and label the structure of the human eye
Ÿ Recognize different eye defects and explain how to
correct them
Ÿ Apply techniques of prevention from the most
common eye defects.

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments presentation of output from group research and

discussion, hygiene of sensory organs.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Explain the functional mechanism of sensory organs

Ÿ Identify parts of the skin
Ÿ Explain functions of the skin
Ÿ Explain properties of the skin
Ÿ Explain how to take care of the skin
Ÿ Recognize some skin diseases
Ÿ Explain how to deal with skin accident
Identify the different zones of the tongue
Ÿ State the different functions of the tongue
Ÿ Explain the hygiene and care of tongue
Ÿ Outline the tongue disorders and its possible accidents
Ÿ List the different parts of the nose
Ÿ Explain the function of the nose
Ÿ Explain how to maintain hygiene of the nose
Ÿ Identify the most common nose diseases and their
possible causes
Ÿ Explain the nose diseases, accidents and their
prevention.

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Learning outcomes Ÿ Identify and describe the main parts of the ear
State the function of the ear

Ÿ Explain the hygiene of the hear

Ÿ Identify the diseases of the ear and their possible

causes

Ÿ Describe the structure of the human eye

Ÿ Explain the anatomy of the human eye

Ÿ List the eye defects

Ÿ Explain how to correct eye defects

Ÿ Explain the prevention of eye defects

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 Human body, Hygiene and First AID
PRIMARY
CHAPTER
HUMAN BODY, HYGIENE AND
12 FIRST AID 4
Sensory Organs
The human body has got five main sense organs. They include:
- The skin
- The eye
- The nose
- The tongue
- The ear
These sense organs contain nerves which help to transmit or send the
information to the brain for interpretation. The brain helps to interpret
different information from those organs. The sense organs have different
sense as shown in the table below:
Sense organ Sense Nerve to the brain

Eye Sense of sight Optic nerve

Ear Sense of hearing Auditory nerves

Nose Sense of smell Olfactory nerve

Skin Sense of touch/feeling Sensory nerve

Tongue Sense of taste Glosal pharyngeal

The brain is called the central nervous system. (CNS) because it help to
interpret all the information sent by different nerves of the body.

Activity
1. State the role of each of the following sense organs:
a) The nose
b) The eye
c) The ear
d) The tongue
e) The skin
2. How are nerves important in the body?

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The skin
The skin is the sense organ for feelings. It is the largest organ of the body.
The skin belongs to sensory and excretory organ of the body.

Layers of the skin

The skin is made up of two main layers namely
a) Epidermis - It is the outer layer of the skin.
b) Dermis - It is the inner layer of the skin.

The structure of the skin.

Parts of the human skin

Function of parts of the skin
a) Hair: For keeping the body warm.
b) Sweat glands: They produce and store sweat
- Absorbs sweat from blood.
c) Pore: It lets sweat out of the body.
d) Capillaries: Transport food and oxygen to all parts of the skin.
e) Erector muscle: It keeps the hair standing.
f) Nerves: to send the message or impulse to the brain .
g) Subcutaneous fat: It contains fat cells where fat is stored.

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Function of human skin
- Excretes salts, water and urea (sweat).
- Stores fat for keeping the body warm.
- Protect the body against germs.
- It regulates the temperature of the body.
- It is a sense organ for feeling.
- It helps in making vitamin D with sun light.
- Protects the body from external injury.

Activity
During sport day, try to run around the field at a high speed about ten
minutes. Stop and feel what is happening in your body.
a) How do you feel?
b) Do you see some liquids on your skin?
c) If yes, that is what we call sweat?

Skin types/skin properties

Knowledge about individual skin properties is helpful for choosing enough
skin care products and treatment. Individual skin type may change because
of external like climate and skin care or internal factors like medications,
hormonal changes and diseases) skin types and properties includes:

a) Normal skin
Normal skin is commonly found in young people. it shows a smooth
texture and clear surface with fine pores.

b) Dry skin
Dry skin is characterized by a lack of moisture in its outer layer, resulting in
tightness. The skin appears dull, especially on the cheeks and around the
eyes. It may lack elasticity.

c) Oily skin
Oily skin is characterized by an increased amount of oil on the skin surface
because of the activeness of sebaceous glands. oily skin is shiny, thick and
has enlarged pores. It is common among adolescents and younger persons.

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d) Mature skin
As a person grows older, the skin's activeness slows down, often leading to
increased dryness, forming of fine lines and wrinkles.
Diseases of the human skin

Disease Cause Signs and symptoms

Scabies Itch mites Watery swelling on the skin.

Itching of the body.

Leprosy Bacteria and spread though Limbs and other parts of the
body contact with an infected body become numb.
person.

Impetigo Bacteria and spread through Watery swelling or blisters

bathing with contaminated appear on the skin.
water.

Skin cancer Using wrong chemicals on the Loss of skin colour.

skin.

Chicken pox Virus Watery swelling on the skin.

Scurvy Lack of vitamin C in our diet. Bleeding of the gum.

Poor healing of wounds.
Low resistance to diseases.

Measles Virus and spread from an Rash all over the body.
infected person to another Sore mouth.
through air. High Fever.

Ring worms Fungus and spread through Round white patches appear
infected clothing. on the skin.
Itching of the body.

Boils Bacteria Blisters on the skin.

Athlete’s foot Fungus and spread through The skin between toes
infected shoes and stockings. becomes white.

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Hygiene of Care of the human skin
- Wash the body with clean water and soap.
- Wash and iron clothes before wearing them.
- Eating foods rich in Vitamin C.
- Avoid playing with sharp cutting materials.
- Do regular physical exercises.
- Avoid sharing clothes with infected people.
- Smear the body with Vaseline to make it soft.
- Do not play rough games that can lead to injury on the skin.

Look at these pictures.

A person smearing
with Vaseline

A B C

What is taking place in picture A, B and C?

Skin accident and their first aid

a) burns
A burn is an injury on the body caused by dry heat. This can be through:
· Contact with hot objects like hot plate, hot charcoal and hot metal.
· Contact with naked electricity wires with high voltage.
· Skin contact with fire.

First aid for burns

I) Put the burn part in clean cold water.
ii) Pour clean cold water on the injured part.

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b) Scalds
A scald is an injury to the body caused by wet heat. This can be through body
contact with hot liquids such as steam, tea, milk, porridge and water.

First aid for scalds

I) Put the burn part in clean cold water.
ii) Pour clean cold water on the injured part.

c) Bruises
A bruise is a swelling in the skin caused by internal bleeding. It is caused by
hitting your head or any body part against the wall, stone or any hard objects.

First aid for bruise.

Apply cold compress by using a piece of cotton wool or a clean cloth in clean
cold water and tie a bandage a round bruise part.

c) Cuts
This is an injury caused on the skin using sharp objects like a razor blade and
a knife.

First aid for cuts

a) Wash the injured part with clean water.
c) Tie the bandage around the injured part.

d) Corns
This is a skin disorder caused by wearing tight shoes.

Prevention of corns
a) Wear good fitting shoes.
b) Avoid small or tight shoes.

Activity
1. Name the two layers of the skin.
2. What is the role of the air found on the skin.
3. Mention any two diseases of the skin

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4. Suggest any two ways of caring for the skin.
5. What is the difference between a burn and scalds
6. What first can you give to a person who burnt his hand with hot fire?
7. Give two function of the skin.

The tongue
The tongue is a thick muscular sensory organ found at the back of buccal
cavity. It is pink in colour and contains taste buds which are present on its
surface. The taste buds are small holes open to the surface of the tongue .
The taste buds in different parts of the tongue respond to particular types
of taste like sweet, sour, salty and bitter.

The human tongue showing particular taste areas.

Function of the tongue

- Helps in chewing and swallowing.
- Cleaning teeth.
- Mixing food and saliva.
- Helps in speech.
- Determining the taste of food.

Hygiene and care of the tongue

- Wash your tongue with warm clean water.
- Always brush your tongue with soft brush.
- Avoid taking very cold or hot drinks.
- Avoid smoking.
- Do not eat irritating food like red pepper.

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Disorders of the tongue
a) Canker Sores
Canker sore is a small wound in the lining of the mouth. Canker sores is
one of the most common problems that occur on the tongue. Sores are
caused on the tongue by other diseases like diabetes, measles, malaria and
anaemia.

b) Thrush
Thrush is an infection of the mouth caused by the candida fungus.
Symptoms of thrush include pain or difficulty swallowing.

c) Burn
This is a pain caused on the tongue by taking a very hot tea or coffee.

d) Tongue biting.
It is cause by accidents like falling down or some diseases like epilepsy.

Activity

1. What is the colour of the tongue?

2. Give any three function of the tongue

3. Mention three ways we can care for our tongue

4. State any two disorders of the tongue

5. Why is it not good to take very hot drinks?

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The ear
Human ear
The human ear is a sensory organ used for hearing sound.
The ear also helps in balancing the body in the right position.

Parts of the ear

The ear is divided into three main parts or regions namely:
a) The outer ear
b) The middle ear
c) The inner ear

a) The outer ear

The outer ear is made up of the pinna, auditory canal and the ear drum.
The pinna helps to trap or collect sound waves and direct them to the
auditory canal. In the outer ear, there is hair to trap dust and other foreign
bodies before damaging the ear drum.

The ear drum is made up of a thin soft membrane sensitive to sound waves.
It vibrates according to the pattern of sound waves received from the
vibrating object.

b) The middle ear

This consists of the three bones called the ossicle. They include the malleus
(hammer), the incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup).

The Ossicle amplify and transmit the vibrations produced by the ear drum
across the middle ear to the inner ear.
It also contains the Eustachian tube to balance air pressure between the ear
and atmospheric pressure.

c) The inner ear

This consists of the cochlea, semi-circular canals and the auditory nerves.
The cochlea contains two fluids that is perilymph and endolymph to convert
sound vibrations into impulses. The auditory nerve helps to carry sound
impulses to the brain for interpretation. The semi-circular canals help to
balance the body in a right posture.

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Function of parts of the ear

a) Pinna
To collect sound waves from air.

b) Auditory canal
To direct the sound waves to the eardrum.

c) Ear drum
Vibrates and send the sound vibration to the Ossicle.

d) Ossicle
Amplify the sound vibration and send it to the cochlea.

e) Cochlea
This is where the hearing takes place.

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f) Auditory nerve
To send the sound message from cochlea to the brain.

g) Semi circular canal

Controls body balance.

h) The Eustachian tube:

It balances air pressure in the middle ear.

Function of the ear

- For hearing.
- For body balance.

Diseases of the ear

1. Otitis
This is an infection in the middle ear caused by bacteria.
Otitis infection

Signs of otitis
- Pus discharge from the ear.
- Itching in the ear lobes or pinna.
- Swelling in the middle ear.

If otitis is not treated in time it may lead to meningitis or madness.

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2. Trauma
This is mainly caused by a very loud noise that lead to damage of the
eardrum. It is also caused by using sharp object to clean the ear which may
lead to injury in the eardrum.

3. Lubyrinthitis
It is caused by infection of diseases like measles, scabies, and chicken pox.

Activity
1. Draw a well labeled diagram of the ear.
2. Suggest one uses of ears to a person.
3. Identity three ways to care for our ears.
4. Why is the ear called a sense organ?

Disorders of the ears or ear defects

1. Foreign body in the human ear

Examples of foreign bodies are seeds and grains, soil, insects and
chemicals. when they enter the ear, they block the auditory canal or cause
damage to the ear drum.

2. Deafness-inability to hear.
It may be caused by infection if not treated early. It can also be caused by
damaging the ear drum after piercing it with a sharp object.

Types of deafness
1. Partial deafness
This is the inability to hear clearly. It can be corrected by removing the ear
wax using a soft material like a stick of cotton tissue.

2. Sensory deafness caused by old age, infections serious skull fracture

A person hears but cannot understand. It can be avoided by;
- good feeding to keep healthy even in old age.
- treatment of any infection as soon as the symptoms are noticed.

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3. Permanent deafness
A person is totally unable to hear any sounds. It is common in dumb people.
It cannot be corrected.
Hygiene of the ears
- Wash your ears daily and keep them dry.
- Do not put or push objects into your ears.
- Do not use sharp objects for cleaning your ears.
- Do not direct your ears to loud sound.
- Eating a balanced diet to keep healthy.
- Avoid staying near noisy places.
- Remove the ear wax regularly.
- Treat infections as soon as symptoms are sighted.

Look at the pictures below.

Activity
1. The diagram below show the human ear. Use it to answer the questions
that follow.

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 Human body, Hygiene and First AID
a) Name the parts labeled P and R
b) What general name is given the structures labeled Q?
c) State the function of the pinna.

2. Apart from hearing, give any one other function of the ear.
3. State two ways of caring to the human ear.
4. In a sentence, give a difference between a partial and sensory deafness.
5. Explain how partial deafness can be corrected
6. Name the three main parts of the ear.
7. Why is it not good to use sharp objects for cleaning our ears?
8. What is the role of the Eustachian tube in the ear?

The human eye

The eye is the sense organ for sight. The complete eye is called the eyeball.
The eye ball is protected by the socket of the skull called orbit.

A structure of the human eye.

eyebrow

eyelashes

Functions of the parts of the eye

a) Eye brows
Prevent sweat coming from fore head from entering the eye.

b) The eye lids

Prevent foreign bodies from entering the eye.

c) Eye lashes
Prevents dust and other particles from entering the eye.

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d) Iris
It controls the amount of light entering the eye.

e) Pupil:
It allows light into the eye.

f) Sclerotic:
It supports and maintains the shape of the eye ball. Sclerotic is also called
white of the eye.

Activity
1. Look at your friends eye. Name the parts you can see.
2. State the function of each part you have named.
3. Which sense is found in the eye?

Internal parts of the eye

Function of the parts of the eye

a) Cornea
It help in bending of light rays to the retina. Cornea is curved and
transparent making it able to bend or refract light to the retina.

b) Conjunctiva
It is thin layer which covers the part of the eye lids. Its main functions are to
cover the front part of the eye and keep the eye moist and clean.

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c) Iris
It controls the amount of light entering the eye. It expands and contracts to
reduce the size of the pupil.

How the iris works

Bright light
When the light is bright, the iris relaxes Dim light
and reduce the size of the pupil When the light is dim, the iris contracts
to enlarge the size of the pupil

d) Pupil
It allows enough light into the eye.

e) The lens
It refracts light rays and send image to the retina.

f) Vitreous humour
It maintains the shape of the eye. it also help in refracting light to produce
image on the retina.

g) Retina
It is where the image is formed.

h) Optic nerve:
It transmits or sends light messages to the brain for interpretation.

I) Ciliary body or ciliary muscles

It contains blood vessels which supply blood to the eye.

j) Tear glands: it is found under the eye lids

Produces a liquid that keeps the eye moist and washes dust from them.

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How is regular blinking important to the eye?
It distributes the fluid over the surface of the eye and prevents it from drying
up. Blinking is the automatic closing and opening of the eye lids.

Normal vision
In normal vision, the image of the object seen is formed on the retina.

Characteristics of images formed in the eye

- They are upside down.
- They are smaller than the objects.
- They are real.

The image formed in the eye is upside down.

The Lens in the person's eye is convex.

A lens is transparent material with a curved side capable of refracting light

Eye defects
This is the inability of the eye to see or focus certain distance well. Eye
defects are cause by:
a) Eye strain
b) Abnormal shape of the eye lens
c) Abnormal shape eye ball
d) Eye diseases

There are two main eye defects namely:

a) Short sight
b) Long sight

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Short sight (myopia)
It is when a person is able to see only nearby objects clearly but cannot see
far away objects.

Correction of short sight

Wear spectacles with concave lens or diverging.

Long sighted (Hypermetropia)

Is when a person can see far away objects clearly but cannot nearby objects.

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Look at the pictures below.

1. Which eye defects is the man in A having?

2. How can it be corrected?
3. Which eye defects is the girl in B having?
4. How can her eye defect be corrected?
5. Give three causes of eye defects.

Eye diseases

Eye diseases and the cause Sings and symptoms Control or prevention

1. Conjunctivitis -Red eye/pink eye - Isolation of the sick.

It is caused by bacteria - Mild burning in the eyes. - Avoid sharing towels,
and viruses. It’s spread by - Eyelids stick together handkerchiefs and bathing
fingers and face towels. during sleep. containers.
- Watery fluid discharge. - Always wash hands with
clean water.
- Treat pregnant mothers
with gonorrhea.

2. Trachoma - Redness and itching of - Wash hands and eyes

It is caused by a bacterium the eyes. regularly.
called Chlamydia. It is - Watery discharge from - Do not shake hands
spread by houseflies, the eyelids. during the outbreak.
hands and face towels. - Swelling of the eyelids. - Do not share hankies
- Pain while looking at and face towels.
light. - Treat the infected one.

3. Night blindness - Poor night vision. Eat food rich in vitamin A

It is caused by a lack of - Low immunity. like carrots and green
Vitamin A in our diet. - Cornea of the eye is vegetables.
always dry.

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4. River blindness - The ryes turn red. - Clear vegetation on
It is caused by onchocerca. - Tears flow. banks of rivers.
It is spread by black flies/ - Inflammation of the iris. - Spray the larva of Jinja
simulids/ jinja fly. - The skin gets rough. fly.
- Itching on the body.

Care of the human eye

- Wash eyes with soap every day.
- Don't look directly at very bright light like sun.
- Don't share face towels.
- See the optician in case of a problem.
- Avoid reading on dim light.
- While reading, let the light come from over the shoulders.
- Avoid rubbing your eyes with dirty fingers.
- While reading don't be too close to the source of light.

Activity
1. Name the part of the skeleton that protect the eyes.

2. Suggest two ways a student can care for the eyes.

3. Identify any two diseases of the eyes.

4. Of what use is the tear gland in the human eye?

5. How is the sun useful to human beings?

6. Suggest any two types of eye defects.

7. Why is it important to keep our body organs used for seeing clean?

8. How can we keep our eyes clean?

9. Why is it important to use clean water when cleaning our eyes?

10. State the way one can correct the following eye defects:
a) short sightedness.
b) long sightedness

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The nose
The nose is a sense organ smelling.
A human being has one nose with two nostrils. The nose contains hair in it
called cilia which help to traps dust and dirt from the air as it passes
through the nasal cavity.

Functions of the nose

- The nose is used for smelling.
- For breathing.

When the air we breathe reaches the nose, it is warmed, dust from it is
retained and it is moisten before it goes to the lungs

The internal part of the nose

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Care of the nose
- By washing with clean water and soap.
- By cleaning using a clean piece of cloth or handkerchief.
- Avoid rough games that might rapture the nose.
- Avoid smelling strange things.
- In case of cold take hot drinks.
- When cleaning the nose, blow one nostril at a time.

Diseases of the nose

Disease Signs and symptoms Prevention/Control

Nasal tuberculosis - Thick mucus. - Avoid smoking tobacco.

- Caused by bacteria - High fever. - Seek medical treatment.
- Watery discharge from - Avoid staying in dusty
the nose. places.

Influenza - Difficulty in breathing. Drink a lot of fluids.

- Caused by a virus. - Constant sneezing. - Take enough rest.
- Watery discharge from
the nose.

Sinusitis - Difficulty in breathing. - Treat using antibiotics.

- Caused by either - Coughing. - Stay in a house with
bacteria or virus. - Fever. enough air space.

Cold - Watery discharge. - Wear warm clothes

Caused by virus. - Nasal congestion. during cold weather.
- Coughing. - Take hot drinks.

Disorders of the nose

a) Nose bleeding
This is cause by some diseases or accident whereby a person knocks his or
her nose on a hard objects like wall and ground

b) Nose blockage by the mucus

This mainly cause by diseases which lead to the blocking of the nose by
thick mucus. It can be corrected by blowing one nostril at a time.

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Revision Exercise
1. Match the following sense organs to their function.
The nose for hearing
The tongue for feeling
The eye for tasting
The ear for smelling
The skin for seeing

2. Name the two layers of the skin.

3. Give any two diseases of the of the skin.

4. State three function of the skin.

5. Name the three small bones that make up the Ossicles.

6. which nerve connect the ear to the brain.

7. What is the ear used for?

8. Name two diseases of the human ear.

9. What is deafness?

10. Name three things that happen to the air in the nose before it goes to
the lungs.

11.state the function of the following parts of the eye:

a) Iris
b) Pupil
c) Retina
d) Optic nerve
12 Name two common diseases of the eye.

13. Give two ways of keeping the hygiene of the eye.

14. Which eye defects is shown below?

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15. How can the eye defects above be corrected.

16. Mention two causes of eye defects.

17. What is another name for short sightedness?

18. What is the role of the hair found in the nose?

19. State two roles of the tongue.

20. Give two ways how we should care for our tongues.

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 Human Skeleton
CHAPTER PRIMARY

13 THE HUMAN SKELETON

4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 10

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required The human skeleton model, charts, laths, wood, hard
cartons, branches and bandages.

Activities Ÿ Observation: Under teacher's guidance, learners

observe on the wall chart and refer to their own body
then name different parts of the skeleton and draw in
their exercises book
Ÿ Discussion: In small groups use the picture (diagram/
drawing) and refer to their own body to discuss the
functions of the skeleton, then share with the whole
class
Ÿ Discussion: Make group discussions to find out good
practices of maintaining the skeleton and avoiding
accidents
Ÿ Role-play simulation: As first aid, apply a splint on an
arm or leg
Ÿ Group research on various bone diseases from library,
hall charts and search engines
Demonstration and practical: Practice some techniques
of maintaining a healthy skeleton: sitting position,
physical exercises, as part of hygiene.

Competencies practices To be able to describe the human skeleton and explain its
functions and maintenance.

Language practice Discussion in groups

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Study skills Ÿ Draw and label the human skeleton.
Ÿ Apply the knowledge to prevent the accidents of the
bones.
Ÿ Practice first aid in case of bone accident.

Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Location of major bones on human skeleton model/chats,

maintenance of bones.

Learning outcomes Ÿ Identify the main parts and major bones of the human
skeleton.
Ÿ Explain the functions of the skeleton.
Ÿ State the main types of bone fractures.
Ÿ Explain how to deal with bone accident.
Ÿ Name and explain most common bone diseases and
deformation of the vertebral column.
Ÿ Explain the hygiene of the human skeleton.

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 Human Skeleton
CHAPTER PRIMARY

13 THE HUMAN SKELETON

4
The skeletal system
It is a system that gives animals the supporting structure of the body It is
mainly bones of the body. A skeleton is the frame work of bones in the
body. An adult human being has about 206 bones. However young children
have more bones than adults but as they grow some bones diffuse or
disappear.

Types of skeleton.
1. Exo-skeleton
The hard material is formed on the outside part of the body. Examples of
organisms with exo-skeletons are: insects and crustaceans. These animals
grow by moulting.

2. Endo skeleton.
These animals have bones inside their bodies. Examples of organisms with
endo skeleton are: people, cow, lion and chickens.

3. Hydrostatic skeleton.
This is where the pressure of the fluid and action of the surrounding
muscles are used to change the shape of an organism and produce
movement.
Examples of organisms with hydrostatic skeleton: snails, earth worms, slugs,
star fish, jelly fish, sea urchins and grass hoppers.

Activity
1. Briefly explain the term human skeleton.
2. How many bones does a normal human being posses?
3. Write down the three types of skeleton.
4. What type of skeleton do the following have:
a) a snail b) a slug c) a tortoise

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Parts of the skeleton.
A skeleton is made up of three main parts namely:
a) the skull
b) the trunk
c) the limbs
The skull is made up of:
a) Cranium or brain case
b) Teeth
The skull protects the brain, eye and inner ear.

Bones of the trunk include:

a) Shoulder bone or scapula
b) Ribs
c) Vertebral column or back bone
scapula
d) Hip bones or pelvis
e) Breast bone or sternum
sternum

ribs

vertebral column

pelvis

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The vertebral column is made up of 33 bones and they help to protect the
spinal cord. The ribs are made of 24 bones and help to protect the lungs
and the heart.

Bones of the limbs

The limbs include legs and the arms. Bones of the legs are:
a) Femur (thigh bone)
b) Tibia
c) Fibula
d) Knee cap ( patella )
e) Tarsals or ankle bone
f) Metatarsals
g) Toe bones
Femur is the longest and the strongest bone in the body.

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Bones of the arms include:
a) Humerus
b) Ulna
c) Radius
d) Wrist bones (carpals)
e) Metacarpals
f) Finger bones or phalanges

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STRUCTURE OF HUMAN SKELETON

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Functions of the skeletal system.
1. It provides supports to the body.
2. It helps in movement.
3. It gives shape to the body
4. Storage of minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
5. The bone marrows are used to produce blood cells.
6. Provides room for attachment of muscles.
7. Protects the delicate body organs.
a) The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner
ears.
b) vertebrae (backbone) protect the spinal cord.
c) The rib cage, and sternum protect the lungs, heart.
d) The pelvis (hip bones ) protects the female reproductive system

Accidents of bones
An accident is an unwanted happening that can cause injuries to the body.
Bone accident includes:

1. Fracture
A fracture is a broken or cracked bone in the body.

Causes of fracture
- Falling down from a tall tree.
- Being knock by a vehicle.
- Falling from storage building.
- Playing bud games.
- Jumping from high places without attention.

Look at the pictures below

A child being knock by a

car on the road. A boy falling from a
fruit tree
TO BE ILLUSTRATED
TO BE ILLUSTRATED

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Types of fracture
There are three main types of fracture namely
i) Simple fracture (closed fracture).
ii) Compound fracture (open fracture).
iii) Green stick fracture.

Simple fracture (closed fracture)

It is when the broken bone remains inside the skin.
A simple fracture is also known as closed fracture.

Signs of a simple fracture

i) The broken bone remains inside the skin.
ii) Swelling of the injured part
iii) Pain while moving.
iv.) Failure to walk or move the affected limb.

Compound fracture (Open fracture)

It is when the broken bone comes out of the skin.

Signs of a compound fracture

- The broken bone comes out of the skin.
- Bleeding of the wound.
- Swelling of the limb.
- Damaged tissues around the injured part.
- Failure to walk or move the limb.

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In this open fracture, the broken end of the tibia has torn through the soft
tissues and came out through the skin

Green stick fractures

It is when a bone bends or gets a crack but remains inside the skin.
Green stick fracture is common among young children because their bones
are still soft.

First aid
First aid is the first help given to a casualty before being taken to the
hospital.
The first help given to an injured person before being taken to the hospital
is very important. A casualty is a person who has been injured in an
accident.
A first aider is a person who gives first aid to a casualty.

Reasons for giving first aid

a) To save life.
b) To reduce pain.
c) To promote quick recovery.
d) To prevent further injuries.
e) To stop bleeding.

First aid for a fracture

i) Tie splints around the injured part.
ii) Take the casualty to the nearest health centre or hospital

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The main role of splints is keep the broken bones in one position and
prevent further injuries.

If the fracture is on the arm:

1. Put the splint around the fractured part of the arm.
2. Tie it with bandage or a piece of cloth.
3. Support the fractured part with a sling.

Look at the picture showing when giving first aid to a person who has got a
fractured arm.

Activity
Look at the picture above.
1. Name three materials used to give first aid.
2. Why is a splint used in the picture.
3. Look at the picture and practice how to tie a sling.

2 .Dislocation
This occurs when the bone moves from its normal position. It is caused by
a twist or severe stretch of the bones. Dislocations normally takes place at
the joint. A joint is where two or more bones meet in the body. Examples
of joints are: the shoulder joint, elbow joint, hip joint, and knee joint.

A Tendon is a tough fibrous tissue that connects muscles to bones.

A Ligament is a fibrous elastic tissue that joins a bone to a bone.
Cartilage prevents the bone ends frictional damage after rubbing directly
onto each other.

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Inside a joint is a lining of synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid reduces friction in a joint.

Signs of dislocation
- Swelling of the injured part.
- Pain around the injured part.
- Difficulty in moving the injured limbs.

First aid for dislocation

I) Wrap a piece of ice around the injured part.
ii) Tie the injured part with a firm bandage.
iii) Rub the injured part with liniment.

Prevention of bone accidents

- Avoid playing on roads.
- Avoid climbing tall trees.
- Play good games that cannot cause fracture.
- Cross road at predestine or zebra crossing.

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 Human Skeleton
Look at the picture below.

Diseases of the skeleton

Rickets-causes by lack of Vitamin D or calcium in the body. It makes
children to have bowed legs.

A child suffering from rickets.

Poliomyelitis (polio)
It is caused by polio virus which attacks the nerve cells and spinal cord
causing paralysis. Polio can be got by drinking dirty or contaminated water
This disease affects the bones especially bones of the limbs.

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 Human Skeleton
Bone cancer
It is caused by being expose to chemical that causes cancer.

Tuberculosis
This is air borne disease which affects both the lungs and skeleton. It is
caused by bacteria called mycobacterium. There are several types of
mycobacterium. Some cause tuberculosis of the lungs while some causes
tuberculosis of the back bone. The mycobacterium bacteria was discovered
by Robert Koch in 1882.

Prevention of diseases of the skeleton

- Boil water for drinking to prevent polio.
- Eat food rich in vitamin D and calcium.
- Do physical exercises.
- Take children for early immunization against polio, tuberculosis and
tetanus.
- Ensure proper body posture.

Deformation of vertebral column

These are disorders on the vertebral column caused by poor sitting and
walking posture of the body.Poor sitting or walking posture causes three
main vertebral deformations:
i) Scoliosis
ii) Lordosis
iii) Kyphosis

Diagram showing different vertebral deformities.

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 Human Skeleton
POSTURE.
It is a way a person positions his body when sitting, standing or walking.
The correct sitting Posture.
a) Sit up straight on the chair.
b) Place both feet on the floor.
c) Put all your weight on both bottoms.
d) Do not tighten your ankles and knees.

Which girl is sitting in a good posture

Look at the girl in C and the boy in D . Which of them has the correct walking posture?

Importance of correct posture.

- Prevents body aches or defromation.
- It prevents one from growing bent bones.
- We can look smart.
- Keeps the internal ogans in proper position.
- Bad postuer leads to indigestion.
- Bad posture also lead to defromation of skeleton like Lordosis, scoliosis,
and kyphosis.

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Revision exercise
1. What is a skeleton?

2. Name the three main parts of the skeleton

3. How many bones does a normal human skeleton have?

4. Which part of the skeleton protects the

a) the brain
b) the spinal cord
c) the heart and lungs

5. How many bones make up the vertebral column?

6. Give three functions of the skeleton.

7. What are limbs?

8. Name the two bone accidents.

9. What is a dislocation?

10. What first aid can you give to a person who has got dislocation?

11. How do we call the broken bone in the body?

12. Mention any two diseases of the skeleton.

13. Give one way how we can avoid bone diseases.

14. Why is it important to give first aid to a casualty?

15. Briefly explain the first aid for the following injuries:

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16. Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms:
a) First aid
b) An accident
c) A scald

17. Name the three types of fracture.

18. Why is green stick fracture common among young children

19. Name the three bone deformities caused by bad sitting and walking
posture.

20. State two importance of having good body posture.

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 Human Muscles
CHAPTER PRIMARY

14 HUMAN MUSCLES
4
CONTENT MAP
Number of periods 8

Introduction

Classroom orientation Group work, whole-class orientation then individual work.

Equipment required The human muscles model, charts

Activities Ÿ Demonstration: Touch the body, contract muscles and

make movements of related organs in order to discover
the main muscles of the head, the trunk, legs and arms.
Ÿ Group discussion: Making group to discuss the
functions of voluntary muscles Making group
discussions in order to discover good practices of
maintaining muscles and avoiding their accidents.
Ÿ Practicing the physical exercises as part of hygiene of
muscles.
Ÿ Role-play: Simulate a first aid intervention in case of
muscle accident(stretching and massage)such as a
cramped muscle.

Competencies practices To be able to identify and explain the functions and

maintenance of muscles.

Language practice Discussion in groups

Study skills Ÿ Apply techniques of maintaining tone of muscles

Ÿ Provide first aid in case of muscle accident
Ÿ Choose and practice appropriate exercises for
maintaining specific muscle's strength.

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 Human Muscles
Revision Revision exercises provided.

Assessments Location of major muscles human muscle model/chats,

maintenance of muscles

Learning outcomes Ÿ Differentiate the two main groups of muscles.

Ÿ List the major groups of voluntary and involuntary
muscles of the human body.
Ÿ Identify the major functions of voluntary muscles.
Ÿ Identify the accidents of muscles.
Ÿ Explain the prevention of muscles' accidents.

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 Human Muscles
The biceps and triceps muscles of the arm.

When the arm is bent, the biceps contract and the triceps relax and when
the arm is straight, the triceps contract and the biceps relax. Such muscles
which work in

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Activity
1. In pairs look at your friends muscles of the hand.
2. What happens when the hand is bent?
3. You will see that when the hand is bent the biceps contract and become
big
is size while triceps will relax and become small in size.
4. Let your friend again put the hand straight.
5. What do you see when the hand is straight?

Involuntary muscles whose movement is not under our will.

Involuntary muscles are also called smooth muscles
Examples of involuntary muscles:
a) Muscles of the eye lids
b) Muscles of the stomach and intestines
c) Muscles of blood vessels
d) Muscles of reproductive system
e) Muscles of the lips

Cardiac muscles
This is type of muscles whose movement is produced by the muscles
themselves. We do not have any little control in the movement of cardiac
muscles. It work without stopping and only stop working when an animal is
dead.
Example of cardiac muscles

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Characteristic of muscles
a) Muscles are elastics. This is the ability of muscles to expand and come
back to it normal size.
b) Muscles contract and relax. Muscles mainly produce movement by
contracting and relaxing.

Function of muscles
- Control body movement.
- Maintaining body posture.
- Help in joining bones in the body.
- Regulate body temperature.

Diseases of muscles
a) Arthritis - pain, stiffness and swelling of joints.
b) Scurvy - caused by lack of vitamin C in the diet.
c) Tetanus it attacks muscles making it stiff and also causes difficulty in
breathing. The bacteria that cause tetanus are found in the soil and can enter
the body through new wounds.

Accident of muscles

a) Sprains
Is the tearing of a ligament in the body. A sprain is caused by over
stretching of ligaments. Ligaments are fibrous tissues that connect one bone
to another in the body.

Sign of a sprain
I) Swelling of the injured part.
ii) Pain while walking.

First aid of sprains

I) Wrap a piece of ice around the injured part
ii) Tie the injured part with a firm bandage

b) Strains
It is the over-stretching of a muscle or tearing of a muscle or a tendon.

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First aid of strains
I) Wrap a piece of ice around the injured part.
ii) Tie the injured part with a firm bandage
iii) Rub the injured part with liniment.

Hygiene of the muscles

- Eat a balanced diet most especially food rich in vitamin C
- Doing physical exercises.
- Keep sharp cutting objects far from children's reach.
- Put on shoes while walking.
- Avoid bad games that can cause injuries to our muscles.

Revision Exercise
1. What are muscles?

2. Write down one example of each of the following type of muscles.

a) Voluntary muscles
b) Involuntary muscles

3. What is the functional difference between ligaments and tendons?

4. State one disorder that affects the ligaments.

5. What happens to biceps when the hand is bent?

6. Why is it important to bathe with clean water?

7. What is the function of tendon in the body?

8. Give two characteristics of muscles.

9. How are muscles useful in our bodies?

10. Which type of muscle is found in the heart?

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